Detection and quantitation of mycotoxins in infant cereals in the U.S. market by LC-MS/MS using a stable isotope dilution assay

Occurrence, evaluation, and human health risk assessment of ochratoxin a in infant formula and cereal-based baby food: a global literature systematic review

This study reviews global levels of ochratoxin A (OTA) in infant formula and cereal-based foods, using Monte Carlo simulation to assess risks. The review found 24 studies on global OTA levels in infant food and cereal-based products, using databases including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and Embase until March 2024. We estimated OTA exposure in infant food based on concentration, intake and body weight. The exposure and hazard quotient margin were calculated using BMDL10 and TDI values. Monte Carlo simulation evaluated human health risks from OTA in infant formula and cereal-based foods. A global study from 14 countries shows varying levels, surpassing EU limits in Tunisia, Ecuador, the USA, and generally in Africa, notably in infant cereals, which had higher levels than formula. Globally, OTA was present in 29.3% of the 3348 samples analyzed, with Lebanon at 95.2% and Brazil at 0%. Analysis indicates only non-carcinogenic risk for infants. While health risks for infants are mostly low, ongoing research and monitoring are vital to minimize OTA exposure in infant food.

Comprehensive identification and risk assessment of regulated and emerging mycotoxins in infant foods and related raw materials and risk management advice: A case study of an infant food company in China

This study evaluated muti-mycotoxins in 199 samples including processed infant foods and raw materials collected randomly from an infant food company and assessed their role in dietary exposure in infants and young children via probabilistic risk assessment. Approximately 79.6 % (74/93) of the processed infant foods and 65.1 % (69/106) of the raw materials were contaminated by mycotoxins, with a mean occurrence level of 3.66-321.8 µg/kg. Deoxynivalenol (DON) and tenuazonic acid (TeA) were the more prevalent mycotoxins detected, based on their higher frequencies and levels across samples. Co-occurrence of more than two mycotoxins was detected in 61.3 % (57/93) of the processed infant foods and 53.8 % (57/106) of the raw materials. Wheat flour and derived products (e.g., infant noodles and infant biscuits) were contaminated with higher contamination levels and a greater variety of mycotoxins than other samples (e.g., infant cereal and rice grains). The estimated daily exposure to OTA, DON, ZEN, and TEN was lower than the corresponding reference health-based guidance values, indicating acceptable health risks. However, the estimated dietary exposure to alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), alternariol (AOH), and tenuazonic acid (TeA) exceeded the corresponding thresholds of toxicological concern values, indicating potential dietary intake risks. Among the various samples, cereals and cereal-based infant foods emerged as the primary contributors to mycotoxin exposure. Further research is advised to address the uncertainties surrounding the toxicity associated with emerging Alternaria mycotoxins and to conduct cumulative risk assessments concerning multiple mycotoxin exposure in infants and young children.

A toluidine blue/porous organic polymer/2D MoSe2 nanocomposite as an electrochemical signaling platform for a sensitive label-free aflatoxin B1 bioassay in some crops

A label-free electrochemical immunosensor using a toluidine blue (TB)/porous organic polymer (POP)/two-dimensional molybdenum diselenide (2D MoSe2) nanocomposite is developed for highly sensitive detection of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in selected crops. A POP/2D MoSe2 composite material is employed to modify the surface of a screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE). Subsequently, TB is adsorbed on the modified SPCE surface, and the resulting TB/POP/2D MoSe2 composite is then used to construct a biosensor. The new POP/2D MoSe2 nanocomposite offers a high surface-to-volume area and is a good electroactive and biocompatible adsorbent for loading TB probe and capture antibodies. Adsorbed TB onto the POP/2D MoSe2 nanocomposite is utilized as a redox probe for the signal amplification unit. This TB/POP/2D MoSe2 nanocomposite provides good electron transfer properties of TB redox probe, good electrical conductivity, good biocompatibility, and likable adsorption ability, thus obtaining a sufficient immobilization quantity of antibodies for the sensor construction. After immobilization of the anti-AFB1 antibody and blocking with BSA on the composite surface, the immunosensor is obtained for the detection of AFB1. Under optimum conditions, the sensor shows a linear logarithmic range of 2.5-40 ng mL-1 with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.40 ng mL-1. The developed sensor provides several advantages in terms of simplicity, low cost, short analysis time, high selectivity, stability, and reproducibility. Additionally, the proposed immunosensor is successfully validated by the detection of AFB1 in rice, corn, and peanut samples. Utilizing the TB/POP/2D MoSe2 nanocomposite, this label-free electrochemical immunosensor demonstrates outstanding sensitivity and selectivity in detecting AFB1, making it a valuable tool for ensuring the safety of agricultural products and enhancing food security.

Evaluation of Aflatoxins Occurrence and Exposure in Cereal-Based Baby Foods: An Update Review

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The first stages of human life, which include the fetal period, infancy, and early childhood, are the most critical for human growth and development. This is the most vulnerable phase to health challenges due to the immature immune system and rapid development. Mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, patulin, fumonisins, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol are secondary metabolites secreted by various fungal species, primarily Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, and Alternaria. Aflatoxins are one of the major mycotoxins produced in cereals and cereal-based foods by several species of Aspergillus, mainly Aspergillus flavus. In this context, this review provides a brief overview of the occurrence, exposure, legal regulations, and health effects of aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, G2, and M1) in cereal-based baby foods and breast milk.

RECENT FINDINGS

Human aflatoxin exposure in utero and through breast milk, infant formulas, cereals, and cereal-based foods has been linked to various health consequences, including adverse birth outcomes, impaired growth and development, immune system suppression, and hepatic dysfunction. Recent evidence suggests that especially infants and children are more susceptible to aflatoxins due to their lower body weight, lowered capacity to detoxify harmful substances, more restrictive diet, immature metabolism and elimination, and faster rates of growth and development. It is essential for both food safety and infant and child health that aflatoxins in cereal and cereal-based products are precisely detected, detoxified, and managed.

Practical Strategies to Reduce Ochratoxin A in Foods

Ochratoxin A (OTA), a potent nephrotoxin, is one of the most deleterious mycotoxins, with its prevalence in agricultural crops and their processed foods around the world. OTA is a major concern to food safety, as OTA exposure through dietary intake may lead to a significant level of accumulation in the body as a result of its long half-life (about 35 days). Its potent renal toxicity and high risk of exposure as well as the difficulty in controlling environmental factors OTA production has prompted the need for timely information on practical strategies for the food industry to effectively manage OTA contamination during food processing. The effects of various food processes, including both nonthermal and thermal methods, on the reduction in OTA were summarized in this review, with emphasis on the toxicity of residual OTA as well as its known and unknown degradation products. Since complete removal of OTA from foodstuffs is not feasible, additional strategies that may facilitate the reduction in OTA in food, such as adding baking soda and sugars, was also discussed, so that the industry may understand and apply practical measures to ensure the safety of its products destined for human consumption.

A comparative review on methods of detection and quantification of mycotoxins in solid food and feed: a focus on cereals and nuts

Many emerging factors and circumstances urge the need to develop and optimize the detection and quantification techniques of mycotoxins in solid food and feed. The diversity of mycotoxins, which have different properties and affinities, makes the standardization of the analytical procedures and the adoption of a single protocol that covers the attributes of all mycotoxins a tedious or even an impossible mission. Several modifications and improvements have been undergone in order to optimize the performance of these methods including the extraction solvents, the extraction methods, the clean-up procedures, and the analytical techniques. The techniques range from the rapid screening methods, which lack sensitivity and specificity such as TLC, to a spectrum of more advanced protocols, namely, ELISA, HPLC, and GC-MS and LC-MS/MS. This review aims at assessing the current studies related to these analytical techniques of mycotoxins in solid food and feed. It discusses and evaluates, through a critical approach, various sample treatment techniques, and provides an in-depth examination of different mycotoxin detection methods. Furthermore, it includes a comparison of their actual accuracy and a thorough analysis of the observed benefits and drawbacks.

Ochratoxin A-The Current Knowledge Concerning Hepatotoxicity, Mode of Action and Possible Prevention

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is considered as the most toxic of the other ochratoxins synthesized by various fungal species belonging to the Aspergillus and Penicillium families. OTA commonly contaminates food and beverages, resulting in animal and human health issues. The toxicity of OTA is known to cause liver damage and is still being researched. However, current findings do not provide clear insights into the toxin mechanism of action. The current studies focusing on the use of potentially protective compounds against the effects of the toxin are insufficient as they are mainly conducted on animals. Further research is required to fill the existing gaps in both fields (namely the exact OTA molecular mechanism and the prevention of its toxicity in the human liver). This review article is a summary of the so far obtained results of studies focusing on the OTA hepatotoxicity, its mode of action, and the known approaches of liver cells protection, which may be the base for expanding other research in near future.

Determination of Multimycotoxin in Cereal-Based Products Sold in Open-Air Markets

In this study, a total of 140 cereal-based foods sold in temporary open-air markets were analyzed by LC-MS/MS for aflatoxin B₁, B₂, G₁, G₂, ochratoxin (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B₁, fumonisin B₂, citrinin (CIT), HT-2, and T-2 toxins. Breakfast cereals (n:27), cornmeal (n:41), extruded maize (n:32), and oatmeal (n:40) purchased from these alternative shopping areas created to meet the food needs of low-income people in the suburbs formed the sample set of the study. These foods, which are sold in areas that are out of legal control and greatly affected by external environmental conditions, are more open to health risks. Mycotoxins, chemicals of a biological origin, are some of the most important of these risks. In terms of public health, it is important to investigate the presence of mycotoxins in foods, which can cause acute and chronic diseases such as immunosuppression, genotoxic, estrogenic, teratogenic effect, cancer, and liver and kidney dysfunctions. Grain-based foods are often contaminated with a large number of mycotoxins, but legal regulations have not been prepared that consider the health risks associated with the co-existence of mycotoxins. Many of the studies have focused on the presence of a single mycotoxin and the risks it poses. As a result, aflatoxin B₁ levels in 28.57% of the samples and total aflatoxin (B₁ + B₂ + G₁ + G₂) levels in 26.43% of the samples were determined to exceed the limits defined in the "Turkish Food Codex Contaminants Regulation". Citrinin could not be detected in any of the samples. The rate of mycotoxin occurrences above the limit of detection (LOD) in grain-based food samples ranged from 22.86% to 99.29%. Total aflatoxin (TAF) + Total Fumonisin (FUM) were found in 83.57% of the samples; TAF + FUM + OTA in 82.14%; TAF + FUM + OTA + T-2 in 44.29%; TAF + FUM + OTA + DON + HT-2, TAF + FUM + OTA + DON + T-2, and TAF + FUM + OTA + DON + ZEN in 22.86% of the samples.

Advances of stable isotope technology in food safety analysis and nutrient metabolism research

Food quality, safety, and the regulatory metabolism of food nutrients in cells are primary factors in determining human health. However, residues of undesirable or hazardous compounds in food products and dysregulation in the nutrient metabolism inevitably occur occasionally. For years, chromatography-mass spectrometry technology has been recognized as an essential research tool in food analysis and nutrient metabolism research, and it is more accurate and robust when coupled with stable isotopes. In this study, we summarize the applications of stable isotope technology in the quantification of contaminant residues (pesticides, veterinary drugs, mycotoxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and other hazardous compounds) in foods and in the nutrients (glucose, lipids, amino acids and proteins) metabolism research. The aim of this review was to serve as a reference for providing effective analysis techniques for protecting food quality and human health, and to pave the way for the broader application of stable isotope technology.

A fluorescence immunoassay based on GSH destroying MnO2@QDs for the simultaneous ultrasensitive detection of four mycotoxins in cereals

A novel fluorescence immunoassay based on MnO₂ nanoflowers loading multicolor quantum dots and glutathione destroying MnO₂ nanoflowers to release quantum dots combined with magnetic separation is developed for rapid, ultra-sensitive, and simultaneous quantitative detection of ochratoxin A, aflatoxin B₁, fumonisin B₁, and zearalenone in cereal samples. The test linear range of assay is from 0.001 to 200 μg L^-1. The limit of detection for ochratoxin A, aflatoxin B₁, fumonisin B₁, and zearalenone is 0.0001 μg L^-1, 0.0001 μg L^-1, 0.0003 μg L^-1, and 0.0001 μg L^-1, respectively. The simultaneous detection of four mycotoxins can be achieve within 30 min. The test results of four mycotoxins in the incurred corn, rice, and oat samples have been confirmed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, the differences between results are considered no significantly different (p > 0.05). This multiplexed test scheme has provided a potential analysis strategy for multiple food risk factors.

Protective Effect of alpha-Tocopherol against Ochratoxin A in Kidney Cell Line HK-2

Food safety is a top priority for the protection of infants and young children. Ochratoxin A (OTA) is an emerging concern due to its high toxicity and occurrence in a wide range of agricultural crops and their derived food products including those foods and snacks destined for infants and young children. OTA is considered as a possible human carcinogen and its main target organ is the kidney. The objective of this study was to investigate the protective effect of α-tocopherol against oxidative stress induced by OTA using human proximal tubule epithelial cells (HK-2). OTA showed dose-dependent increase in cytotoxicity (IC₅₀ = 161 nM, p<0.05) at 48 h, while treatment up to 2 mM α-tocopherol did not change cell viability. Levels of the reduced form of glutathione (GSH) were decreased with α-tocopherol treatment, although the ratio of the oxidative form (GSSG) to GSH remained the same. Among several genes associated with oxidative stress, expression of superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase (GSR), and kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1) were significantly up-regulated by OTA treatment. CAT and GSR showed decreased expression at 0.5 - 2 mM α-tocopherol and OTA at IC₅₀ value, KIM-1 was decreased at 0.5 mM α-tocopherol and OTA at IC₅₀ value, and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) was decreased at 0.5 - 1 mM α-tocopherol and OTA at IC₅₀ value. In addition, the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) were increased significantly by OTA while significantly decreased by α-tocopherol. The results show that α-tocopherol may alleviate potential OTA-induced renal damage and oxidative stress through reducing cytotoxicity and enhancing the antioxidant defense systems.

Deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in Brazilian barley destined for brewing

Barley is an important cereal worldwide. However, fungal contamination during pre and postharvest is a recurrent problem for barley production, causing a direct impact on the quality of the grains and their by-products due to spoilage and mycotoxin accumulation. The Fusarium graminearum species complex is the main contaminant during preharvest and some species can produce deoxynivalenol and zearalenone, important mycotoxins that represent a risk to human and animal health. This study evaluated the fungal diversity and the levels of DON and ZEN in barley grains produced in Brazil. The results showed high frequency (60%) of Fusariumcontamination in barley grains. Additionally, mycotoxin levels ranged from 46 to 2074 µg/kg for DON and from 74 to 556 µg/kg for ZEN. Co-occurrence of DON and ZEN was observed in 40% of the samples and 30% of barley samples had DON and ZEN levels higher than the maximum levels established by Brazilian and European legislations.   .

Preliminary survey of the occurrence of mycotoxins in cereals and estimated exposure in a northwestern region of Mexico

Mycotoxins have several toxicological implications. In the present study, we evaluate the presence of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), ochratoxin A (OTA), and fumonisin (FB₁) in paddy rice, polished rice, and maize from the fields and markets in Nayarit State (Mexico). The results indicated the presence of AFB₁ in 21.21% of paddy rice samples and 11.11% of market maize samples. OTA was present in only 3.03% (one sample) of paddy rice samples. FB₁ was detected in 87.50% and 88.88% of maize samples from field and market, respectively. The estimated human exposure was calculated for FB₁ using the probable daily intake (PDI), which suggested that FB₁ could contribute to the development of diseases through the consumption of contaminated maize. Positive samples indicated that some rice and maize samples were not suitable for human consumption. Further efforts are needed to continue monitoring mycotoxins and update national legislation on mycotoxins accordingly.

Mycotoxins Contamination in Rice: Analytical Methods, Occurrence and Detoxification Strategies

The prevalence of mycotoxins in the environment is associated with potential crop contamination, which results in an unavoidable increase in human exposure. Rice, being the second most consumed cereal worldwide, constitutes an important source of potential contamination by mycotoxins. Due to the increasing number of notifications reported, and the occurrence of mycotoxins at levels above the legislated limits, this work intends to compile the most relevant studies and review the main methods used in the detection and quantification of these compounds in rice. The aflatoxins and ochratoxin A are the predominant mycotoxins detected in rice grain and these data reveal the importance of adopting safety storage practices that prevent the growth of producing fungi from the Aspergillus genus along all the rice chain. Immunoaffinity columns (IAC) and QuECHERS are the preferred methods for extraction and purification and HPLC-MS/MS is preferred for quantification purposes. Further investigation is still required to establish the real exposition of these contaminants, as well as the consequences and possible synergistic effects due to the co-occurrence of mycotoxins and also for emergent and masked mycotoxins.

Recent advancements in LC-MS based analysis of biotoxins: Present and future challenges

There has been a rising concern regarding the harmful impact of biotoxins, source of origin, and the determination of the specific type of toxin. With numerous reports on their extensive spread, biotoxins pose a critical challenge to figure out their parent groups, metabolites, and concentration. In that aspect, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) based analysis paves the way for its accurate identification and quantification. The biotoxins are ideally categorized as phytotoxins, mycotoxins, shellfish-toxins, ciguatoxins, cyanotoxins, and bacterial toxins such as tetrodotoxins. Considering the diverse nature of biotoxins, both low-resolution mass spectrometry (LRMS) and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) methods have been implemented for their detection. The sample preparation strategy for complex matrix usually includes "QuEChERS" extraction or solid-phase extraction coupled with homogenization and centrifugation. For targeted analysis of biotoxins, the LRMS consisting of a tandem mass spectrometer operating in multiple reaction monitoring mode has been widely implemented. With the help of the reference standard, most of the toxins were accurately quantified. At the same time, the suspect screening and nontarget screening approach are facilitated by the HRMS platforms during the absence of reference standards. Significant progress has also been made in sampling device employment, utilizing novel sample preparation strategies, synthesizing toxin standards, employing hybrid MS platforms, and the associated data interpretation. This critical review attempts to elucidate the progress in LC-MS based analysis in the determination of biotoxins while pointing out major challenges and suggestions for future development.

Overview of Recent Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry-Based Methods for Natural Toxins Detection in Food Products

Natural toxins include a wide range of toxic metabolites also occurring in food and products, thus representing a risk for consumer health. In the last few decades, several robust and sensitive analytical methods able to determine their occurrence in food have been developed. Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry is the most powerful tool for the simultaneous detection of these toxins due to its advantages in terms of sensitivity and selectivity. A comprehensive review on the most relevant papers on methods based on liquid chromatography mass spectrometry for the analysis of mycotoxins, alkaloids, marine toxins, glycoalkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides and furocoumarins in food is reported herein. Specifically, a literature search from 2011 to 2021 was carried out, selecting a total of 96 papers. Different approaches to sample preparation, chromatographic separation and detection mode are discussed. Particular attention is given to the analytical performance characteristics obtained in the validation process and the relevant application to real samples.

Development of isotope dilution-liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry for the accurate determination of zearalenone and its metabolites in corn

A method using isotope dilution-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (ID-LC/MS/MS) was developed for the accurate determination of zearalenone (ZEN) and its five major metabolites in corn. ¹³C- or ²H-labeled analogues of the target mycotoxins were used as internal standards. As the immunoaffinity columns used demonstrated selectivity to a specific chiral isomer of a racemic mixture of zearalanone-d₆, a clean-up cartridge without stereoselectivity (Mycosep 226 column) was selected for the same recovery of the analyte and its internal standard with adequate elimination of matrix interferences. The method demonstrated sufficient selectivity, sensitivity, accuracy and precision over a concentration range of 20-400 µg/kg. The limit of detections and limit of quantifications were 0.14-0.33 µg/kg and 0.45-1.11 µg/kg, respectively. The accuracy values were 96.7%-103.6%, with intra and inter-day precisions of less than 3% and 4%, respectively. The expanded measurement uncertainty was less than 7% (with a 95% confidence level).

The Investigation of Mycotoxins and Enterobacteriaceae of Cereal-Based Baby Foods Marketed in Turkey

In this study, a total of 85 cereal-based baby foods with or without milk (four different brands; A, B, C, and D) collected from Ankara local markets, Turkey were analyzed for mycotoxins, total aerobic mesophilic bacteria (TAMB), and Enterobacteriaceae contamination. Baby foods were analyzed for 12 toxicological important mycotoxins such as aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, and G2; fumonisin B1 and B2; ochratoxin A; sterigmatocystin (STE); deoxynivalenol (DON); zearalenone (ZON); and T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin by LC-MS/MS multi-mycotoxin method. In addition to these mycotoxins, the presence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) was investigated in baby foods containing milk. The classical culture method was used for microbiological analysis. Consequently, at least one mycotoxin was detected in 69.41% of the total samples. The most frequently detected mycotoxins were STE (34.12%) and HT-2 (34.12%). However, AFM1 was not detected in any of the baby foods containing milk. Also, TAMB and Enterobacteriaceae were isolated from 30.59% and 10.59% of samples, respectively. As a result, it was determined that the mycotoxin levels in the analyzed samples were in accordance with the mycotoxin levels specified in the Turkish Food Codex.

Levels of T-2 toxin and its metabolites, and the occurrence of Fusarium fungi in spring barley in the Czech Republic

Mycotoxins have been widely studied by many research groups but further multidisciplinary research is needed to better understand and clarify many issues. This study describes the use of high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with ion trap mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) to measure T-2 toxin and its metabolites, such as HT-2 toxin, neosolaniol (NEO) and diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), as well as masked glucosylated mycotoxins in Fusarium-infected Czech spring barley. In total, 152 spring barley samples from the 2018 harvest were analyzed by the ELISA screening method for the presence of T-2 toxin. The most contaminated samples (15), which exceeded the recommended maximum level set by the EU for the sum of T-2 and HT-2 toxin in unprocessed cereals (200 μg/kg), were analyzed by HPLC-MS/MS and microbiological testing. Isolated fungi were evaluated microscopically and identified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays. The prevalence of Fusarium species in spring barley across the Czech Republic in 2018 showed a predominance of F. poae (12 barley samples) and F. tricinctum (9 barley samples). Other strains (F. sporotrichioides and F. langsethiae) were present at a lower frequency, in 1 and 2 samples, respectively. The average concentration of T-2 plus HT-2 toxin was 107.7 μg/kg, while NEO and DAS were found in a few samples at values close to their limit of quantification. HT-2 glucoside was identified in all samples.

Natural Occurrence of Deoxynivalenol in Cereal-Based Baby Foods for Infants from Western Poland

The study examined 110 samples of baby products based on rice, wheat, maize and multi-grains available on the western Polish market in order to detect the level of deoxynivalenol (DON) by means of HPLC (high-performance liquid chromatography) with a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD). DON was detected in 9.09% of the infant food samples, with an average and maximum level of 107.8 ± 30 and 148 μg/kg, respectively. The highest concentration of DON was detected in food for infants: wheat-based (mean 121 ± 7.07, 4.8%), multi-grain (mean 118 ± 5.65, 4.25%) and maize-based (mean 100 ± 37.96; 35.30%). No high DON content and high estimated daily intake were observed in the analyzed products. However, in order to minimize the harmfulness associated with the presence of DON in food for infants and young children, a risk assessment should be performed based on the monitoring results.

Validation of LC-MS/MS Coupled with a Chiral Column for the Determination of 3- or 15-Acetyl Deoxynivalenol Mycotoxins from Fusarium graminearum in Wheat

The major causal agents Fusarium graminearum (F. graminearum) and Fusarium asiaticum could produce multiple mycotoxins in infected wheat, which threatens the health of humans and animals. Specifically, deoxynivalenol (DON) and its derivatives 3- and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON and 15-ADON) are commonly detected mycotoxins in cereal grains. However, the good chromatographic separation of 3-ADON and 15-ADON remains challenging. Here, an LC-MS/MS method for the chemotype determination of Fusarium strains was developed and validated. 3- and 15-ADON could be separated chromatographically in this study with sufficiently low limits of detection (LODs; 4 μg/kg) and limits of quantification (LOQs; 8 μg/kg). The satisfying intraday and interday reproducibility (both %RSDr and %RSDR were <20%) of this method indicated good stability. The recoveries of all analytes were in the range of 80-120%. In addition, three F. graminearum complex (FGC) strains, i.e., PH-1 (chemotype 15-ADON), F-1 (chemotype 3-ADON) and 5035 (chemotype 15-ADON), were selected to verify the accuracy of the method in differentiating phenotypes. The validation results showed that this LC-MS/MS method based on sample pretreatment is effective and suitable for the chromatographic separation of 3-ADON and 15-ADON in wheat.

Evaluation of Mycotoxins in Infant Breast Milk and Infant Food, Reviewing the Literature Data

In this review, an analysis focusing on mycotoxin determination in infant breast milk and infant food has been summarised for the last fifteen years of research focused on the intended population group of 1-9 months. The objective was to know the level of exposure of the child population to an estimated daily intake (EDI) of mycotoxins from the consumption of habitual foods. The EDI was compared with the tolerable daily intake (TDI) established by EFSA to estimate risk. In breast milk, the high prevalence and levels were for samples from Africa (Egypt and Tanzania) with aflatoxin M1 (1.9 μg/L and 10%), and Asia (Iran) with ochratoxin-A (7.3 μg/L and 100%). In infant formulas, high incidences and values were for samples with aflatoxin M1 from Burkina Faso (167 samples, 84%, 87 μg/kg). In cereal products, the highest incidence was for DON from the United States (96 samples), and the highest value was an Italian sample (0.83 μg/kg of enniatin B). In fruit products, patulin was the most detected in Italian (78) and Spanish (24) samples. The highest risk was observed in breast milk during the first month of age, the highest EDI for aflatoxin M1 was reported for Egypt (344-595 ng/kg bw/day) and ochratoxin-A for Iran (97-167ng/kg bw/day), representing a public health problem.

Implementing a risk-risk analysis framework to evaluate the impact of food intake shifts on risk of illness: a case study with infant cereal

In food safety, process pathway risk assessments usually estimate the risk of illness from a single hazard and a single food and can inform food safety decisions and consumer advice. To evaluate the health impact of a potential change in diet, we need to understand not only the risk posed by the considered hazard and food but also the risk posed by the substitution food and other potential hazards. We developed a framework to provide decision-makers with a multi-faceted evaluation of the impact of dietary shifts on risk of illness. Our case study explored exposure to inorganic arsenic (iAs) and aflatoxins through consumption of infant cereals and the risk of developing lung, bladder and liver cancer over a lifetime. The estimated additional Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY) in the U.S. from exposure to iAs and aflatoxin based on available contamination and consumption patterns of infant rice and oat cereal is 4,921 (CI 90% 414; 9,071). If all infant cereal consumers shift intake (maintaining equivalent serving size and frequency) to only consuming infant rice cereal, the predicted DALY increases to 6,942 (CI 90% 326; 12,931). If all infant cereal consumers shift intake to only consuming infant oat cereal, the predicted DALY decreases to 1,513 (CI 90% 312; 3,356). Changes in contaminant concentrations or percent consumers, that could occur in the future, also significantly impact the predicted risk. Uncertainty in these risk predictions is primarily driven by the dose-response models. A risk-risk analysis framework provides decision-makers with a nuanced understanding of the public health impact of dietary changes and can be applied to other food safety and nutrition questions.

Reduction of Ochratoxin A during the Preparation of Porridge with Sodium Bicarbonate and Fructose

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a potential human carcinogen that poses a significant concern in food safety and public health. OTA has been found in a wide variety of agricultural commodities, including cereal grains. This study investigated the reduction of OTA during the preparation of rice- and oat-based porridge by a simulated indirect steam process. The effects of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) and fructose on the reduction of OTA were also investigated. During the processing, OTA in rice- and oat-porridge was decreased by 59% and 14%, respectively, from initial OTA artificially added at 20 μg/kg (dry weight basis). When 0.5% and 1% of sodium bicarbonate were added to rice porridge, increased reduction of OTA was observed as 78% and 68%, respectively. The same amounts of added sodium bicarbonate also further reduced OTA in oat porridge to 58% and 72%, respectively. In addition, increased reduction of OTA in the presence of fructose was observed. A combination of the two, i.e., 0.5% sodium bicarbonate and 0.5% fructose, resulted in a 79% and 67% reduction in rice porridge and oat porridge, respectively. These results indicate that indirect steaming may effectively reduce OTA in preparation of porridge-type products, particularly when sodium bicarbonate and/or fructose are added.

Development and Validation of a UHPLC-MS/MS Method for the Analysis of Fusarium Mycotoxins in Onion

Fusarium basal rot (FBR) of onion is a serious disease problem worldwide. The Fusarium species causing FBR can also produce mycotoxins that are potentially harmful to humans and animals. In this study, a multiple reaction monitoring technique with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (MRM UHPLC-MS/MS) was developed and validated for onion matrix to study Fusarium mycotoxins in the harvested onions. This study was focused on fumonisins B1, B2, and B3 (FB1, FB2, and FB3), beauvericin (BEA), and moniliformin (MON), which are the main mycotoxins produced by Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium proliferatum. In the in-house validated protocol, the onion samples were extracted with methanol:water (3:1) using magnetic stirring for 15 min. FBs and BEA were determined directly from the filtered extracts, whereas MON required sample concentration prior to analysis. No cleanup of extracts was needed prior to analysis. The target mycotoxins were separated on an Acquity UPLC system BEH C18 column with gradient elution. Mycotoxins were identified and quantified using 13C-FB1 as internal standard. Minor matrix effect was compensated using multi-point matrix-matched calibration curves with uninfected onion sample. For the mycotoxins studied, a good linearity was obtained (R2 ≥ 0.99) and the recoveries were in the range of 67–122%, with the highest standard deviation for MON, 22%. The limits of quantification were from 2.5 to 10 ng g−1 in onion matrix. The method was successfully employed for the analysis of mycotoxins in harvested onions showing FBR symptoms and found to be infected with F. oxysporum and F. proliferatum.

Deep eutectic solvent based ultrasound assisted emulsification microextraction for preconcentration and voltammetric determination of aflatoxin B1 in cereal samples

A new and simple deep eutectic solvent based ultrasound-assisted emulsification microextraction (DES-UAEME) procedure has been developed for preconcentration and voltammetric determination of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in cereal products. The method is based on the acetonitrile-based extraction of AFB1 from homogenized cereal samples followed by a DES-UAEME procedure for subsequent differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) determination in a microcell. A DES composed of choline chloride and urea (ChCl-Ur) was used as the extraction solvent and electrolyte for DPV detection. Various parameters affecting the extraction efficiency of AFB1 were evaluated and optimized. Under optimum conditions the calibration graph was linear in the range of 0.2-80.0 μg L^-1 (R² = 0.9966) and the limit of detection (3S_b) was estimated to be 0.05 μg L^-1. The intra-day and inter-day precision (RSD%) for determination of 5.0 μg L^-1 AFB1 were 3.4% and 3.9%, respectively. The proposed method was also successfully applied for preconcentration and determination of AFB1 in different cereal samples and good relative recoveries were obtained over a range of 94 to 104%.

Mycotoxins Analysis in Cereals and Related Foodstuffs by Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Techniques

In the entire world, cereals and related foodstuffs are used as an important source of energy, minerals, and vitamins. Nevertheless, their contamination with mycotoxins kept special attention due to harmful effects on human health. The present paper was conducted to evaluate published studies regarding the identification and characterization of mycotoxins in cereals and related foodstuffs by liquid chromatography coupled to (tandem) mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) techniques. For sample preparation, published studies based on the development of extraction and clean-up strategies including solid-phase extraction, solid-liquid extraction, and immunoaffinity columns, as well as on methods based on minimum clean-up (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS)) technology, are examined. LC-MS/MS has become the golden method for the simultaneous multimycotoxin analysis, with different sample preparation approaches, due to the range of different physicochemical properties of these toxic products. Therefore, this new strategy can be an alternative for fast, simple, and accurate determination of multiclass mycotoxins in complex cereal samples.

Development of isotope dilution-liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry for the accurate determination of type-A trichothecenes in grains

We report the development of a highly accurate method based on isotope dilution liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (ID-LC-MS/MS) for the simultaneous determination of four major type-A trichothecenes in cereal grains. Uniformly labeled [¹³C] analogues of the target analytes were used as internal standards. An expedient sample preparation procedure was established. After extraction with acetonitrile/water (84:16; v/v), further clean-up was performed using MycoSep 227 solid-phase extraction cartridges. Unlike the commonly used immunoaffinity columns having strong selectivity for only certain target analytes, the cartridges allowed the simultaneous recovery of all four mycotoxins and efficient elimination of co-extracted matrix interferences. The ID-LC-MS/MS method exhibited very good analytical performance in the concentration range of 10-200 µg/kg; accuracy ranged from 97 to 103% with intra-day and inter-day relative standard deviations of less than 5% and 4%, respectively. Measurement uncertainties were generally below 5%. The applicability of the method was assessed by measuring the target mycotoxins in several samples at sub-µg/kg levels.

Advances in Analysis and Detection of Major Mycotoxins in Foods

Mycotoxins are the most widely studied biological toxins, which contaminate foods at very low concentrations. This review describes the emerging extraction techniques and the current and alternatives analytical techniques and methods that have been used to successfully detect and identify important mycotoxins. Some of them have proven to be particularly effective in not only the detection of mycotoxins, but also in detecting mycotoxin-producing fungi. Chromatographic techniques such as high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with various detectors like fluorescence, diode array, UV, liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry, and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, have been powerful tools for analyzing and detecting major mycotoxins. Recent progress of the development of rapid immunoaffinity-based detection techniques such as immunoassays and biosensors, as well as emerging technologies like proteomic and genomic methods, molecular techniques, electronic nose, aggregation-induced emission dye, quantitative NMR and hyperspectral imaging for the detection of mycotoxins in foods, have also been presented.

Mycotoxicological monitoring of breakfast and infant cereals marketed in Brazil

A mycotoxicological survey was conducted in breakfast (n = 172) and infant (n = 43) cereals commercialized in Brazil. Samples were collected in 2018 for analyses of: aflatoxins (AFs) B₁ (AFB₁), B₂, G₁ and G₂; fumonisins (FBs) B₁ (FB₁) and B₂; zearalenone (ZEN); the trichothecenes (TRCs) deoxynivalenol (DON), T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, nivalenol, fusarenon X, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol and diacetoxyscirpenol; and ochratoxin A. FB₁ was the most prevalent metabolite in breakfast cereals, being detected in 26.7% of the samples (mean 105 μg/kg); ZEN had the second highest positivity, 14.8% (mean 17 μg/kg), followed by DON with 10% (mean 44 μg/kg). In infant cereals, FB₁ also had the highest incidence, 27.8% (mean 55 μg/kg), followed by DON with 10.3% (mean 36 μg/kg) and ZEN with 6.9% (mean 3 μg/kg). Mycotoxins contamination was found in 31.4% (n = 54) of the breakfast cereals and in 18.6% (n = 8) of the infant cereals. In these positive samples, co-occurrence of two or three mycotoxins was detected in 31.5% (n = 17) of the breakfast cereals and in 25% (n = 2) of the infant cereals. The mycotoxins found co-contaminating the breakfast cereals belong to the genera Aspergillus and Fusarium; ZEN, followed by AFB₁, were the most prevalent ones. As for the infant cereals, the associated fungal metabolites are produced by the genus Fusarium; the highest incidence was seen for ZEN. Low contamination and positivity of mycotoxins were found herein; nonetheless, in some samples these substances were present at levels which transgress those preconized in the Brazilian legislation. Therefore, mycotoxicological monitoring of this type of product throughout the nation is crucial in order to identify the potential risk to which the Brazilian population is exposed, particularly the children.

Sensitive and reliable detection of deoxynivalenol mycotoxin in pig feed by surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy on silver nanocubes@polydopamine substrate

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the trichothecene mycotoxin, a frequent contaminant of pig feed. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) is a fast and ultrasensitive analytical tool for point-of-need applications to identify molecular fingerprint structures at low concentrations. However, the use of SERS for analyte detection with flexible and robust structures is still challenging. Herein, we have developed core-shell silver nanocubes coated with polydopamine (Ag NCs@PDA) SERS substrate for the quantitative detection of deoxynivalenol in pig feed. The Ag NCs@PDA substrate with ultrathin (1.6 nm) PDA shell thickness enhances the absorption of DON via hydrogen bonding and π-π stacking interactions, as well as improves the stability of the substrate. The results of the SERS showed a high analytical enhancement factor (AEF) of 1.82 × 10⁷ and a detection limit (LOD) as low as femtomolar range (0.82 fM). The LOD of the Ag NCs@PDA substrate for DON detection is 1.8 times lower than the bare Ag NCs. Furthermore, the Ag NCs@PDA substrate is stable which retains 88.24% of the original Raman intensity after storage for three months. The obtained results demonstrate that the Ag NCs@PDA substrates can realize label-free detection of deoxynivalenol mycotoxin with high sensitivity, reproducibility, and stability. Our work proposes a low-cost method for the designing of the SERS sensing device, and has great potential to be applied in food safety, biomedical sciences, and environmental monitoring.

Stability of Mycotoxins in Individual Stock and Multi-Analyte Standard Solutions

Standard solutions of mycotoxins prepared in RP HPLC solvents from neat standards are usually used for analytical method development. Multi-mycotoxin HPLC-MS/MS methods necessitate stability estimation for the wide spectrum of fungal metabolites. The stability of individual diluted stock standard solutions of mycotoxins in RP-HPLC solvents and multi-analyte HPLC-MS/MS calibrants was evaluated under standard storage and analysis conditions. Individual stock standard solutions of aflatoxins, sterigmatocystin, A- and B-trichothecenes, zearalenone and its analogues, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, Alternaria toxins, enniatins and beauvericin, moniliformin, citrinin, mycophenolic, cyclopiazonic acids and citreoviridin were prepared in RP-HPLC solvents and stored at -18 °C for 14 months. UV-spectroscopy was utilized to monitor the stability of analytes, excluding fumonisins. The gradual degradation of α-, β-zearalenol and α-, β-zearalanol in acetonitrile was detected. Aflatoxins and sterigmatocystin, zearalenone, Alternaria toxins, enniatins and beauvericin, citrinin, mycophenolic, cyclopiazonic acids and citreoviridin can be referred to as stable. The concentration of the majority of trichothecenes should be monitored. Diluted multi-mycotoxin standard in water/methanol (50/50 v/v) solutions acidified with 0.1% formic acid proved to be stable in silanized glass at 23 °C exposed to light for at least 75 h (CV≤10%). An unexpected manifestation of MS/MS signal suppression/enhancement was discovered in the course of multi-mycotoxin standard solution stability evaluation.