1
|
Nazareth TDM, Soriano Pérez E, Luz C, Meca G, Quiles JM. Comprehensive Review of Aflatoxin and Ochratoxin A Dynamics: Emergence, Toxicological Impact, and Advanced Control Strategies. Foods 2024; 13:1920. [PMID: 38928866 PMCID: PMC11203094 DOI: 10.3390/foods13121920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 06/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Filamentous fungi exhibit remarkable adaptability to diverse substrates and can synthesize a plethora of secondary metabolites. These metabolites, produced in response to environmental stimuli, not only confer selective advantages but also encompass potentially deleterious mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, exemplified by those originating from Alternaria, Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium species, represent challenging hazards to both human and animal health, thus warranting stringent regulatory control. Despite regulatory frameworks, mycotoxin contamination remains a pressing global challenge, particularly within cereal-based matrices and their derived by-products, integral components of animal diets. Strategies aimed at mitigating mycotoxin contamination encompass multifaceted approaches, including biological control modalities, detoxification procedures, and innovative interventions like essential oils. However, hurdles persist, underscoring the imperative for innovative interventions. This review elucidated the prevalence, health ramifications, regulatory paradigms, and evolving preventive strategies about two prominent mycotoxins, aflatoxins and ochratoxin A. Furthermore, it explored the emergence of new fungal species, and biocontrol methods using lactic acid bacteria and essential mustard oil, emphasizing their efficacy in mitigating fungal spoilage and mycotoxin production. Through an integrative examination of these facets, this review endeavored to furnish a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted challenges posed by mycotoxin contamination and the emergent strategies poised to ameliorate its impact on food and feed safety.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tiago de Melo Nazareth
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain; (E.S.P.); (C.L.); (G.M.); (J.M.Q.)
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in milk and exposure estimation for its consumption in the Chilean population. Food Control 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2023.109677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2023]
|
3
|
Xiong J, Chen F, Zhang J, Ao W, Zhou X, Yang H, Wu Z, Wu L, Wang C, Qiu Y. Occurrence of Aflatoxin M1 in Three Types of Milk from Xinjiang, China, and the Risk of Exposure for Milk Consumers in Different Age-Sex Groups. Foods 2022; 11:foods11233922. [PMID: 36496730 PMCID: PMC9738243 DOI: 10.3390/foods11233922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), a group 1 carcinogen, is a risk factor to be monitored in milk. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence of AFM1 in milk in Xinjiang, China, and to assess the risk of exposure for milk consumers in different age-sex groups. A total of 259 milk samples including pasteurized milk (93 samples), extended-shelf-life (ESL) milk (96), and raw donkey milk (70) were collected in Xinjiang from January to March in 2022. The AFM1 content of the milk samples was detected using a validated ELISA method. Of the 259 total samples analyzed for AFM1, 84 (32.4%) samples were contaminated at levels greater than the detection limit of 5 ng/L, with the maximum level of 16.5 ng/L. The positive rates of AFM1 in pasteurized milk and ESL milk were 43.0% (n = 40) and 45.8% (n = 44), respectively, and AFM1 was undetectable in donkey milk. The estimated daily intakes of AFM1 in each age group were lower than the hazard limits and were similar between male and female milk consumers. Therefore, the AFM1 contamination of milk in Xinjiang is low but still needs to be continuously monitored considering that children are susceptible to AFM1.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jianglin Xiong
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, School of Animal Science and Nutrition Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China
| | - Fangyuan Chen
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, School of Animal Science and Nutrition Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, School of Animal Science and Nutrition Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China
| | - Weiping Ao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Tarim University, Alaer 843300, China
| | - Xiaoling Zhou
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Tarim University, Alaer 843300, China
| | - Hua Yang
- School of Mathematics and Computer Science, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China
| | - Zhongyuan Wu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, School of Animal Science and Nutrition Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China
| | - Lingying Wu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, School of Animal Science and Nutrition Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China
| | - Chong Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology & College of Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang A & F University, Hangzhou 311300, China
- Correspondence: (C.W.); (Y.Q.)
| | - Yinsheng Qiu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, School of Animal Science and Nutrition Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China
- Correspondence: (C.W.); (Y.Q.)
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Incidence of Aflatoxin M1 in Milk and Milk Products from Punjab, Pakistan, and Estimation of Dietary Intake. DAIRY 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/dairy3030041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present study, 124 samples of milk and milk products were analyzed for the presence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), which were purchased from the central cities of Punjab, Pakistan. The analysis was carried out using reverse-phase liquid chromatography, which was equipped with a fluorescence detector. The results showed that 66 samples (53.8%) of raw milk and milk products were found to be contaminated with detectable levels of AFM1 above ≤50 ng/L, and 24.2% of the samples had levels of AFM1 higher than the permissible limit of the European Union (EU; 50 ng/kg). In total, 53.6% of the raw milk, 57.8% of the UHT (ultra-heat-temperature) milk, 45% of the powdered milk, 57.1% of the yogurt, 55.5% of the cheese, and 50% of the buttermilk samples had levels higher than the LOD, i.e., 4 ng/L. The highest mean of 82.4 ± 7.8 ng/kg of AFM1 was present in the positive samples of raw milk. The highest dietary intake of AFM1 was found in infants’ milk (5.35 ng/kg/day), UHT milk (1.80 ng/kg/day), powdered milk (5.25 ng/kg/day), and yogurt (1.11 ng/kg/day). However, no dietary intake was detected in the cheese and butter milk samples used for infants. The results from the undertaken work are beneficial for establishing rigorous limits for AFB1 in animal feed, especially considering the high prevalence rate of hepatitis cases in the central cities of Punjab, Pakistan.
Collapse
|
5
|
Chen J, Ye J, Li L, Wu Y, Liu H, Xuan Z, Chen M, Wang S. One-step automatic sample pretreatment for rapid, simple, sensitive, and efficient determination of aflatoxin M1 in milk by immunomagnetic beads coupled to liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Food Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.108927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
|
6
|
Changes of bacterial microbiota and volatile flavor compounds in ewe milk during dielectric barrier discharge cold plasma processing. Food Res Int 2022; 159:111607. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Revised: 06/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
7
|
Xiong J, Wen D, Zhou H, Chen R, Wang H, Wang C, Wu Z, Qiu Y, Wu L. Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in yogurt and milk in central-eastern China and the risk of exposure in milk consumers. Food Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.108928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
8
|
Mokhtari SA, Nemati A, Fazlzadeh M, Moradi-Asl E, Ardabili VT, Seddigh A. Aflatoxin M1 in distributed milks in northwestern Iran: occurrence, seasonal variation, and risk assessment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:41429-41438. [PMID: 35088262 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-18212-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxin is one of the dangerous fungal toxins that is produced in the presence of humidity and heat and lack of proper storage conditions and is considered as a dangerous substance threatening human health. The work aimed to determination of aflatoxin M1 (AFM) level in raw, pasteurized, and sterilized milks offered in the study area and to evaluate the risk of its consumption. In this descriptive cross-sectional study, 60 samples of milk types supplied in the region were collected during two series of sampling (cold and hot seasons) and analyzed by ELISA method. LCR, MoE, and HI indices were used to assess the possible risk of consuming milk containing AFM. In all taken samples AFM was found, the toxin concentration range in the first and second series of sampling was 57.5-270.6 ng/L and 57-185.9 ng/L, respectively. The level of toxin in pasteurized and sterilized milks in both sampling series was higher than raw milks. Based on the obtained data and in order to assess the risk of milk consumption in the target population, associated values with EDI, LCR, MoE, and HI were also calculated and obtained in the range of 0.145-0.3 ng/k.d b.w, 0.0008-0.0017 additional case per one million population, 1892.9-3921.6 and 0.72-1.5 ng/kg b.w, respectively. According to the findings, all samples tested are contaminated and although it is within the range of the WHO recommendation, however, based on the calculated indicators, the risk of liver cancer threatens the consumers of these milks. Therefore, it is necessary to manage this issue through educational control and monitoring measures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seyyed Ahmad Mokhtari
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran
| | - Ali Nemati
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran.
| | - Mehdi Fazlzadeh
- Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran.
| | - Eslam Moradi-Asl
- Department of Public Health, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran
| | - Vahid Taefi Ardabili
- Food and Drug Administration, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran
| | - Anoshirvan Seddigh
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
|
10
|
|
11
|
Xiong J, Zhang X, Zhou H, Lei M, Liu Y, Ye C, Wu W, Wang C, Wu L, Qiu Y. Aflatoxin M1 in pasteurized, ESL and UHT milk products from central China during summer and winter seasons: Prevalence and risk assessment of exposure in different age groups. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.107908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
12
|
Waqas M, Pervaiz W, Zia KM, Iqbal SZ. Assessment of aflatoxin
B
1
in animal feed and aflatoxin
M
1
in raw milk samples of different species of milking animals from Punjab, Pakistan. J Food Saf 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/jfs.12893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Waqas
- Department of Applied Chemistry Government College University Faisalabad Pakistan
| | - Wajeeha Pervaiz
- Department of Applied Chemistry Government College University Faisalabad Pakistan
| | - Khalid Mahmood Zia
- Department of Chemistry Government College University Faisalabad Pakistan
| | - Shahzad Zafar Iqbal
- Department of Applied Chemistry Government College University Faisalabad Pakistan
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Xu N, Xiao Y, Xie Q, Li Y, Ye J, Ren D. Occurrence of aflatoxin B1 in total mixed rations and aflatoxin M1 in raw and commercial dairy milk in northern China during winter season. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.107916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
|
14
|
Saha Turna N, Wu F. Aflatoxin M1 in milk: A global occurrence, intake, & exposure assessment. Trends Food Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2021.01.093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
|
15
|
An ultrasensitive, homogeneous fluorescence quenching immunoassay integrating separation and detection of aflatoxin M 1 based on magnetic graphene composites. Mikrochim Acta 2021; 188:59. [PMID: 33507410 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-021-04715-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
A homogeneous fluorescence quenching immunoassay is described for simultaneous separation and detection of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk. The novel assay relies on monoclonal antibody (mAb) functionalized Fe3O4 decorated reduced-graphene oxide (rGO-Fe3O4-mAb) as both capture probe and energy acceptor, combined with tetramethylrhodamine cadaverine-labeled aflatoxin B1 (AFB1-TRCA) as the energy donor. In the assay, AFB1-TRCA binds to rGO-Fe3O4-mAb in the absence of AFM1, quenching the fluorescence of TRCA by resonance energy transfer. Significantly, the immunoassay integrates sample preparation and detection into a single step, by using magnetic graphene composites to avoid washing and centrifugation steps, and the assay can be completed within 10 min. Under optimized conditions, the visual and quantitative detection limits of the assay for AFM1 were 50 and 3.8 ng L-1, respectively, which were significantly lower than those obtained by fluorescence polarization immunoassay using the same immunoreagents. Owing to its operation and highly sensitivity, the proposed assay provides a powerful tool for the detection of AFM1.
Collapse
|
16
|
Muaz K, Riaz M, Oliveira CAFD, Akhtar S, Ali SW, Nadeem H, Park S, Balasubramanian B. Aflatoxin M1 in milk and dairy products: global occurrence and potential decontamination strategies. TOXIN REV 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/15569543.2021.1873387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Khurram Muaz
- Institute of Food Science and Nutrition, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Riaz
- Institute of Food Science and Nutrition, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | | | - Saeed Akhtar
- Institute of Food Science and Nutrition, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Shinawar Waseem Ali
- Institute of Agricultural Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Habibullah Nadeem
- Department of Bioinformatics and Biotechnology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Sungkwon Park
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Sejong University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Ding R, Liu Y, Yang S, Liu Y, Shi H, Yue X, Wu R, Wu J. High-throughput sequencing provides new insights into the roles and implications of core microbiota present in pasteurized milk. Food Res Int 2020; 137:109586. [PMID: 33233194 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Residual microorganisms in dairy products are closely related to their quality deterioration and safety. Based on the minimum sterilization conditions required by Grade A Pasteurized Milk Ordinance, this study explored the microbiota present in milk products that were high temperature short time pasteurized at 72, 75, 80, 83, or 85 °C for 15 s, 20 s, and 30 s separately. Based on high-throughput sequencing results, 6 phyla and 18 genera were identified as dominant microbiota. Proteobacteria and Firmicutes were the maior bacteria in phyla, and each comprising more than 50%. Pseudomonas was account for more than 42% of all the genera detected in all samples. Moreover, the changes in flavor substances in pasteurized milk, including 16 free amino acids, 9 fatty acids, and 17 volatile compounds, were detected using principal component and multi factor analyses. The Pearson correlation coefficient analysis identified six bacteria genera as the core functional microbiota that significantly affected the flavor compounds and the safety and quality of pasteurized milk. Interestingly, Pseudomonas, Omithimimicrobium, Cyanobacteria and Corynebacterium had positive correlations with the flavor substances, whereas Streptococcus and Paeniclostridium had significant negative correlations with these substances. The results may help enhance the quality control of dairy products and can be used as indicators of microbial contamination of pasteurized dairy products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruixue Ding
- College of Food Science, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, PR China
| | - Yiming Liu
- Department of Foreign Languages, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, PR China
| | - Shanshan Yang
- College of Food Science, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, PR China
| | - Yumeng Liu
- College of Food Science, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, PR China
| | - Haisu Shi
- College of Food Science, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, PR China
| | - Xiqing Yue
- College of Food Science, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, PR China
| | - Rina Wu
- College of Food Science, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, PR China.
| | - Junrui Wu
- College of Food Science, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
The challenges of global occurrence of aflatoxin M1 contamination and the reduction of aflatoxin M1 in milk over the past decade. Food Control 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
|
19
|
Determination of Aflatoxin M1 in Raw Milk from Different Provinces of Ecuador. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12080498. [PMID: 32756414 PMCID: PMC7472276 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12080498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is a mycotoxin from Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, classified as carcinogenic and hepatotoxic. The objective of the present investigation was to determine its presence in raw milk from north-central Ecuador, constituted by the provinces of Pichincha, Manabí, and Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas. These areas represent approximately 30% of Ecuadorian milk production. By the end of the investigation, a total of 209 raw milk samples were collected, obtained both during the dry (June and August) and rainy seasons (April and November) of 2019. AFM1 concentrations were measured with lateral flow immunochromatographic assays, and 100% of the samples were positive for this mycotoxin, presenting a mean value of 0.0774 μg/kg with a range of 0.023 to 0.751 μg/kg. These AFM1 levels exceeded the European Union regulatory limit of 0.05 μg/kg in 59.3% (124/209) of samples, while only 1.9% (4/209) exceeded the Ecuadorian legal limit of 0.5 μg/kg. By using non-parametric tests, significant differences were determined (p ≤ 0.05) between the provinces for months of study, climatic season (being higher in the dry season), and climatic region (greater in the coast region). On the other hand, there were no significant differences (p ≥ 0.05) between the types of producers or between production systems. Therefore, AFM1 contamination in raw milk does not present a serious public health problem in Ecuador, but a monitoring and surveillance program for this mycotoxin in milk should be developed to prevent consumer health problems.
Collapse
|
20
|
Yang Y, Zhang L, Hettinga KA, Erasmus SW, van Ruth SM. Prevalence of Milk Fraud in the Chinese Market and its Relationship with Fraud Vulnerabilities in the Chain. Foods 2020; 9:E709. [PMID: 32492929 PMCID: PMC7353633 DOI: 10.3390/foods9060709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to assess the prevalence of ultra-high-temperature (UHT) processed milk samples suspected of being adulterated on the Chinese market and, subsequently, relate their geographical origin to the earlier determined fraud vulnerability. A total of 52 UHT milk samples purchased from the Chinese market were measured to detect possible anomalies. The milk compositional features were determined by standardized Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy, and the detection limits for common milk adulterations were investigated. The results showed that twelve of the analysed milk samples (23%) were suspected of having quality or fraud-related issues, while one sample of these was highly suspected of being adulterated (diluted with water). Proportionally, more suspected samples were determined among milks produced in the Central-Northern and Eastern areas of China than in those from the North-Western and North-Eastern areas, while those from the South were in between. Combining the earlier collected results on fraud vulnerability in the Chinese milk chains, it appears that increased fraud prevalence relates to poorer business relationships and lack of adequate managerial controls. Since very few opportunities and motivations differ consistently across high and low-prevalence areas, primarily the improvement of control measures can help to mitigate food fraud in the Chinese milk supply chains.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuzheng Yang
- Food Quality and Design Group, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands; (Y.Y.); (K.A.H.); (S.W.E.)
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, part of Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Liebing Zhang
- College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, P.O. Box 291, Beijing 100083, China;
| | - Kasper A. Hettinga
- Food Quality and Design Group, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands; (Y.Y.); (K.A.H.); (S.W.E.)
| | - Sara W. Erasmus
- Food Quality and Design Group, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands; (Y.Y.); (K.A.H.); (S.W.E.)
| | - Saskia M. van Ruth
- Food Quality and Design Group, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands; (Y.Y.); (K.A.H.); (S.W.E.)
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, part of Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Nazhand A, Durazzo A, Lucarini M, Souto EB, Santini A. Characteristics, Occurrence, Detection and Detoxification of Aflatoxins in Foods and Feeds. Foods 2020; 9:E644. [PMID: 32443392 PMCID: PMC7278662 DOI: 10.3390/foods9050644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2020] [Revised: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination continues to be a food safety concern globally, with the most toxic being aflatoxins. On-farm aflatoxins, during food transit or storage, directly or indirectly result in the contamination of foods, which affects the liver, immune system and reproduction after infiltration into human beings and animals. There are numerous reports on aflatoxins focusing on achieving appropriate methods for quantification, precise detection and control in order to ensure consumer safety. In 2012, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, M1 and M2 as group 1 carcinogenic substances, which are a global human health concern. Consequently, this review article addresses aflatoxin chemical properties and biosynthetic processes; aflatoxin contamination in foods and feeds; health effects in human beings and animals due to aflatoxin exposure, as well as aflatoxin detection and detoxification methods.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amirhossein Nazhand
- Department of Biotechnology, Sari Agricultural Science and Natural Resource University, 9th km of Farah Abad Road, Mazandaran 48181-68984, Iran;
| | - Alessandra Durazzo
- CREA-Research Centre for Food and Nutrition, Via Ardeatina 546, 00178 Roma, Italy; (A.D.); (M.L.)
| | - Massimo Lucarini
- CREA-Research Centre for Food and Nutrition, Via Ardeatina 546, 00178 Roma, Italy; (A.D.); (M.L.)
| | - Eliana B. Souto
- Faculty of Pharmacy of University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Polo III-Saúde, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal;
- CEB-Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Antonello Santini
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Napoli Federico II, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131 Napoli, Italy
| |
Collapse
|