Improved survival of Lactobacillus zeae LB1 in a spray dried alginate-protein matrix

Improved viability of probiotics by encapsulation in chickpea protein matrix during simulated gastrointestinal digestion by succinylated modification

The potential application of succinylated chickpea protein (SCP) as a wall material for spray-dried microencapsulated probiotics was investigated. The results showed that succinylation increased the surface charge of chickpea proteins (CP) and reduced the particle size of the proteins. Meanwhile, succinylated modification decreased the solubility of protein under acidic conditions and increased the solubility in alkaline conditions. The effects of spray drying and in vitro gastrointestinal digestion on probiotics were investigated by microencapsulating chickpea protein with different degrees of N-succinylation. The results showed that all microcapsules had similar morphology, particle size and low water content. The microcapsules prepared by succinylated chickpea protein showed better stability and viability during spray drying and gastrointestinal digestion. The protective effect of probiotics was better as the degree of N-succinylation increased. In particular, the SCP-3-P sample (10 % succinic anhydride modified CP and maltodextrin) lost only 0.29 Log CFU/g throughout gastrointestinal digestion. The superior protective effect provided by succinylated CP in simulated gastric fluid (SGF) was mainly attributed to the reaction of succinic anhydride with protein to cause protein aggregation under gastric acidic conditions, reducing the infiltration of gastric acid and pepsin and maintaining the structural integrity of the microcapsules. Therefore, these findings provide a new strategy for probiotic intestinal delivery and application of chickpea protein.

Improving the survival of Lactobacillus plantarum FZU3013 by phase separated caseinate/alginate gel beads

The phase separation behavior of mixed solution of caseinate (Cas) and alginate (Alg) was investigated. Lactobacillus plantarum FZU3013 was encapsulated using 4 % Cas/1 % Alg gel beads with a phase-separated structure. The bacteria were predominantly distributed in the Alg-rich continuous phase. The use of 4 % Cas/1 % Alg beads resulted in higher encapsulation efficiency for L. plantarum FZU3013 compared to 1 % Alg beads. After 5 weeks of storage at 4 °C, the viable count in 4 % Cas/1 % Alg beads was 8.3 log CFU/g, which was 1.1 log CFU/g higher than that of the 1 % Alg beads. When 1 % Alg beads of the smallest size were subjected to in vitro digestion, no viable bacteria could be detected at the end of the digestion, whereas the 4 % Cas/1 % Alg beads of the smallest size had a viable count of 3.9 log CFU/g. When the size of the 4 % Cas/1 % Alg beads was increased to 1000 μm, the viable count was 7.0 log CFU/g after digestion. The results of infrared spectroscopy and zeta potential indicated that hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions between caseinate and alginate reinforced the structure of the gel beads and improved the protection for L. plantarum FZU 3013.

A comprehensive review on the utilization of biopolymer hydrogels to encapsulate and protect probiotics in foods

Probiotics must survive in foods and passage through the human mouth, stomach, and small intestine to reach the colon in a viable state and exhibit their beneficial health effects. Probiotic viability can be improved by encapsulating them inside hydrogel-based delivery systems. These systems typically comprise a 3D network of cross-linked polymers that retain large amounts of water within their pores. This study discussed the stability of probiotics and morphology of hydrogel beads after encapsulation, encapsulation efficiency, utilization of natural polymers, and encapsulation mechanisms. Examples of the application of these hydrogel-based delivery systems are then given. These studies show that encapsulation of probiotics in hydrogels can improve their viability, provide favorable conditions in the food matrix, and control their release for efficient colonization in the large intestine. Finally, we highlight areas where future research is required, such as the large-scale production of encapsulated probiotics and the in vivo testing of their efficacy using animal and human studies.

Advances in polysaccharides for probiotic delivery: Properties, methods, and applications

Probiotics are essential to improve the health of the host, whereas maintaining the viability of probiotics in harsh environments remains a challenge. Polysaccharides have non-toxicity, excellent biocompatibility, and outstanding biodegradability, which can protect probiotics by forming a physical barrier and show a promising prospect for probiotic delivery. In this review, we summarize polysaccharides commonly used for probiotic microencapsulation and introduce the microencapsulation technologies, including extrusion, emulsion, spray drying, freeze drying, and electrohydrodynamics. We discuss strategies for better protection of probiotics and introduce the applications of polysaccharides-encapsulated probiotics in functional food, oral formulation, and animal feed. Finally, we propose the challenges of polysaccharides-based delivery systems in industrial production and application. This review will help provide insight into the advances and challenges of polysaccharides in probiotic delivery.

Producing mixed-soy protein adsorption layers on alginate microgels to controlled-release β-carotene

In this study, the effects of soy protein isolate (SPI) on the morphology, encapsulation efficiency, storage stability, swelling behavior, and in vitro digestion behavior of calcium alginate (CA) microgels were investigated. CA and calcium alginate-SPI (CAS) microgels with encapsulated β-carotene were prepared by extruding a mixture of alginate and SPI using a co-extrusion technique, followed by cross-linking with Ca²⁺. All microgels exhibited homogeneous sizes and spherical shapes, and CAS microgels showed high levels of protein loading efficiency. The encapsulation efficiency and storage stability of β-carotene within CAS microgels were higher than those within CA microgels. The introduction of SPI into CAS microgels resulted in a higher degree of gel size shrinkage in gastric fluid and a lower degree of swelling in intestinal fluid compared to CA microgels. In vitro digestion was conducted to investigate the effects of the addition of SPI on the release behavior of CA and CAS microgels. Results obtained showed that CAS microgels were more resistant to simulated gastric fluid than CA microgels. Cryo-scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) observations indicated that the release behavior was dependent on the porosity of the CA and CAS microgels, and the porosity was influenced by the concentration of SPI. This study showed that the introduction of SPI to CA microgels can lead to the development of an effective controlled release delivery system.

Microencapsulation protected Lactobacillus viability and its activity in modulating the intestinal microbiota in newly weaned piglets

Lactobacilli are sensitive to heat, which limits their application as probiotics in livestock production. Lactobacillus rhamnosus LB1 was previously shown to reduce enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) and Salmonella infections in pigs. To investigate its potential in the application, the bacterium was microencapsulated and examined for its survival from feed pelleting and long-term storage as well as its function in modulating pig intestinal microbiota. The in vitro studies showed that freshly microencapsulated Lactobacillus rhamnosus LB1 had viable counts of 9.03 ± 0.049 log10 colony-forming units/g, of which only 0.06 and 0.87 Log of viable counts were reduced after storage at 4 and 22 °C for 427 d. The viable counts of encapsulated Lactobacillus rhamnosus LB1 were 1.06 and 1.54 Log higher in the pelleted and mash feed, respectively, than the non-encapsulated form stored at 22 °C for 30 d. In the in vivo studies, 80 piglets (weaned at 21 d of age) were allocated to five dietary treatments for a 10-d growth trial. The dietary treatments were the basal diet (CTL) and basal diet combined with either non-encapsulated LB1 (NEP), encapsulated LB1 (EP), bovine colostrum (BC), or a combination of encapsulated LB1 and bovine colostrum (EP-BC). The results demonstrated that weaning depressed feed intake and reduced growth rates in pigs of all the treatments during 21 to 25 d of age; however, the body weight gain was improved during 25 to 31 d of age in all groups with the numerically highest increase in the EP-BC-fed pigs during 21 to 31 d of age. Dietary treatments with EP, particularly in combination with BC, modulated pig intestinal microbiota, including an increase in Lactobacillus relative abundance. These results suggest that microencapsulation can protect Lactobacillus rhamnosus LB1 against cell damage from a high temperature during processing and storage and there are possible complementary effects between EP and BC.

Journey of the Probiotic Bacteria: Survival of the Fittest

This review aims to bring a more general view of the technological and biological challenges regarding production and use of probiotic bacteria in promoting human health. After a brief description of the current concepts, the challenges for the production at an industrial level are presented from the physiology of the central metabolism to the ability to face the main forms of stress in the industrial process. Once produced, these cells are processed to be commercialized in suspension or dried forms or added to food matrices. At this stage, the maintenance of cell viability and vitality is of paramount for the quality of the product. Powder products requires the development of strategies that ensure the integrity of components and cellular functions that allow complete recovery of cells at the time of consumption. Finally, once consumed, probiotic cells must face a very powerful set of physicochemical mechanisms within the body, which include enzymes, antibacterial molecules and sudden changes in pH. Understanding the action of these agents and the induction of cellular tolerance mechanisms is fundamental for the selection of increasingly efficient strains in order to survive from production to colonization of the intestinal tract and to promote the desired health benefits.

The dual effect of shellac on survival of spray-dried Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG microcapsules

Heat shock and hygroscopicity are two main factors that resulted in low viability of probiotics in spray-dried microcapsules during storage. Hydrophobic polyester shellac was combined with whey protein isolate (WPI) to solve this problem. The results suggested that although the survival rate after drying decreased from 20.63% to 0.01% with increased shellac to WPI ratio, the 1:1 shellac-WPI provided the best protection among all samples during storage. The consistence between moisture-adsorption-isotherm and bacterial inactivation constants confirmed the moisture barrier effect of shellac under moderate humidity. Single-droplet drying and differential scanning calorimeter revealed that shellac addition reduced the drying rate and glass transition temperature of microcapsules, which in turn decreased the membrane integrity and growth capability of the probiotics after drying. This study revealed the dual effect of hydrophobic material on instant and long-term survival of spray-dried probiotic microcapsules, which provided new sight to the design of composite wall materials.

Microencapsulation of Bacteriophages for the Delivery to and Modulation of the Human Gut Microbiota through Milk and Cereal Products

There is a bidirectional interaction between the gut microbiota and human health status. Disturbance of the microbiota increases the risk of pathogen infections and other diseases. The use of bacteriophages as antibacterial therapy or prophylaxis is intended to counteract intestinal disorders. To deliver bacteriophages unharmed into the gut, they must be protected from acidic conditions in the stomach. Therefore, an encapsulation method based on in situ complexation of alginate (2%), calcium ions (0.5%), and milk proteins (1%) by spray drying was investigated. Powdered capsules with particle sizes of ~10 µm and bacteriophage K5 titers of ~108 plaque forming units (pfu) g−1 were obtained. They protected the bacteriophages from acid (pH 2.5) in the stomach for 2 h and released them within 30 min under intestinal conditions (in vitro). There was no loss of viability during storage over two months (4 °C). Instead of consuming bacteriophage capsules in pure form (i.e., as powder/tablets), they could be inserted into food matrices, as exemplary shown in this study using cereal cookies as a semi-solid food matrix. By consuming bacteriophages in combination with probiotic organisms (e.g., via yoghurt with cereal cookies), probiotics could directly repopulate the niches generated by bacteriophages and, thus, contribute to a healthier life.

Application of Pickering emulsions in probiotic encapsulation- A review

Probiotics are live microorganisms that confer health benefits to host organisms when consumed in adequate amounts and are often incorporated into foods for human consumption. However, this has negative implications on their viability as large numbers of these beneficial bacteria are deactivated when subjected to harsh conditions during processing, storage, and passage through the gastrointestinal tract. To address these issues, numerous studies on encapsulation techniques to protect probiotics have been conducted. This review focuses on emulsion technology for probiotic encapsulation, with a special focus on Pickering emulsions. Pickering emulsions are stabilized by solid particles, which adsorb strongly onto the liquid-liquid interfaces to prevent aggregation. Pickering emulsions have demonstrated enhanced stability, high encapsulation efficiency, and cost-effectiveness compared to other encapsulation techniques. Additionally, Pickering emulsions are regarded as safe and biocompatible and utilize natural materials, such as cellulose and chitosan derived from plants, shellfish, and fungi, which may also be viewed as more acceptable in food systems than common synthetic and natural molecular surfactants. This article reviews the current status of Pickering emulsion use for probiotic delivery and explores the potential of this technique for application in other fields, such as livestock farming, pet food, and aquaculture.

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Probiotics play an important role in maintaining the health of humans and animals.

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Encapsulation improves probiotic viability in harsh environments.

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Probiotics can be encapsulated by many techniques such as emulsification.

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Pickering emulsions use particles instead of molecules to stabilize emulsions.

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Natural particles are more acceptable to some consumers than synthetic emulsifiers.

Microencapsulation of Lactobacillus plantarum by spray drying: Protective effects during simulated food processing, gastrointestinal conditions, and in kefir

Probiotics are incorporated into food products because of numerous favorable effects on human health. The viability of probiotics is often affected by unfavorable interference during processing. The encapsulation can provide protection to probiotics during mechanical processing, storage, and gastrointestinal digestion. This study aimed to evaluate the protective effect of whey protein isolate (WPI) and dextran (DX) conjugates for Lactobacillus plantarum. The WPI-DX conjugate was prepared by Maillard-based glycation and confirmed by gel electrophoresis. Extending the heating time from 1 to 5 h decreased the content of tryptophan residues and increased the amide I and amide II bands. The enhanced protective ability of Maillard reaction products (MRPs) for L. plantarum was observed under conditions of stress (pH, heat, and salt) and in vitro digestion. In situ viability tests showed that encapsulation improved the survival of bacteria in kefir during 15 days of storage at 4 °C. Overall, our results provide valuable information for the development of functional probiotic food products.

The viability of complex coacervate encapsulated probiotics during simulated sequential gastrointestinal digestion affected by wall materials and drying methods

The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of protein type (sodium caseinate and pea protein isolate) and protein to sugar beet pectin mixing ratio (5 : 1 and 2 : 1) on complex coacervate formation, as well as the impact of the finishing technology (freeze-drying and spray-drying) for improving the viability of encapsulated Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) in complex coacervates during simulated sequential gastrointestinal (GI) digestion. The physicochemical properties of LGG encapsulated microcapsules in liquid and powder form were evaluated. The state diagram and ζ-potential results indicated that pH 3.0 was the optimum pH for coacervate formation in the current systems. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), viscoelastic analysis, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) confirmed that the gel-like network structure of the complex coacervates was successfully formed between the protein and SBP at pH 3.0 through electrostatic interaction. In terms of physiochemical properties and viability of LGG encapsulated in the microcapsule powder, the drying method played a crucial role on particle size, microstructure and death rate of encapsulated LGG during simulated sequential GI digestion compared to protein type and biopolymer mixing ratio. For example, the microstructure of spray-dried microcapsules exhibited smaller spherical particles with some cavities, whereas the larger particle size of freeze-dried samples showed a porous sponge network structure with larger particle sizes. As a result, spray-dried LGG microcapsules generally had a lower death rate during simulated sequential gastrointestinal digestion compared to their freeze-dried counterparts. Among all samples, spray-dried PPI-SBP microcapsules demonstrated superior performance against cell loss and maintained more than 7.5 log CFU per g viable cells after digestion.

Alginate: From Food Industry to Biomedical Applications and Management of Metabolic Disorders

Initially used extensively as an additive and ingredient in the food industry, alginate has become an important compound for a wide range of industries and applications, such as the medical, pharmaceutical and cosmetics sectors. In the food industry, alginate has been used to coat fruits and vegetables, as a microbial and viral protection product, and as a gelling, thickening, stabilizing or emulsifying agent. Its biocompatibility, biodegradability, nontoxicity and the possibility of it being used in quantum satis doses prompted scientists to explore new properties for alginate usage. Thus, the use of alginate has been expanded so as to be directed towards the pharmaceutical and biomedical industries, where studies have shown that it can be used successfully as biomaterial for wound, hydrogel, and aerogel dressings, among others. Furthermore, the ability to encapsulate natural substances has led to the possibility of using alginate as a drug coating and drug delivery agent, including the encapsulation of probiotics. This is important considering the fact that, until recently, encapsulation and coating agents used in the pharmaceutical industry were limited to the use of lactose, a potentially allergenic agent or gelatin. Obtained at a relatively low cost from marine brown algae, this hydrocolloid can also be used as a potential tool in the management of diabetes, not only as an insulin delivery agent but also due to its ability to improve insulin resistance, attenuate chronic inflammation and decrease oxidative stress. In addition, alginate has been recognized as a potential weight loss treatment, as alginate supplementation has been used as an adjunct treatment to energy restriction, to enhance satiety and improve weight loss in obese individuals. Thus, alginate holds the promise of an effective product used in the food industry as well as in the management of metabolic disorders such as diabetes and obesity. This review highlights recent research advances on the characteristics of alginate and brings to the forefront the beneficial aspects of using alginate, from the food industry to the biomedical field.

Encapsulation of Lactobacillus rhamnosus in Hyaluronic Acid-Based Hydrogel for Pathogen-Targeted Delivery to Ameliorate Enteritis

Probiotics were found to be effective in ameliorating the microbial dysbiosis and inflammation caused by intestinal pathogens. However, biological challenges encountered during oral delivery have greatly limited their potential health benefits. Here, a model probiotic (Lactobacillus rhamnosus) was encapsulated in an intestinal-targeted hydrogel to alleviate bacterial enteritis in a novel mode. The hydrogel was prepared simply by the self-cross-linking of thiolated hyaluronic acid. Upon exposure to H₂S which were excreted by surrounding intestinal pathogens, the hydrogel can locally degrade and rapidly release cargos to compete with source pathogens in turn for binding to the host. The mechanical properties of hydrogel were studied by rheological analysis, and the ideal stability was achieved at a polymer concentration of 4% (w/v). The morphology of the optimal encapsulation system was further measured by a scanning electron microscope, exhibiting uniform payload of probiotics. Endurance experiments indicated that the encapsulation of L. rhamnosus significantly enhanced their viability under gastrointestinal tract insults. Compared with free cells, encapsulated L. rhamnosus exerted better therapeutic effect against Salmonella-induced enteritis with negligible toxicity in vivo. These results demonstrate that this redox-responsive hydrogel may be a promising encapsulation and delivery system for improving the efficacy of orally administered probiotics.

Improved viability of Akkermansia muciniphila by encapsulation in spray dried succinate-grafted alginate doped with epigallocatechin-3-gallate

We explored the possibility of improving the viability of Akkermansia muciniphila by encapsulating it in succinate-grafted alginate doped with epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG). In this study, the determined surface properties of microcapsules and modified materials and the measured viability of probiotics after spray drying showed that the modified sodium alginate made the surfaces of microcapsules smoother and denser during the spray drying, thus preventing damages. EGCG enhanced the antioxidant capacity of probiotics by filling the pores inside microgels. Moreover, we analyzed the long-term storage vitality changes, oxidation resistance, uniformity, particle size and Zeta potential of microcapsules and found that spray-dried modified sodium alginate microcapsules with EGCG showed the better storability and stability. In addition, we experimentally analyzed the resistances of different microcapsules to the gastrointestinal fluid and found that EGCG-modified sodium alginate microcapsules better protected the probiotic activity from gastrointestinal fluid. This study provides a slimming product with industrial application potential.

Viability of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG microencapsulated in alginate/chitosan hydrogel particles during storage and simulated gastrointestinal digestion: role of chitosan molecular weight

Sodium alginate hydrogel particles coated with cationic biopolymers have been shown to be one of the promising means for probiotic encapsulation and protection. In this study, we aimed to systematically explore the effect of molecular weight of chitosan coating on the functional performance of sodium alginate hydrogel particles for improving the viability of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG). We first electrostatically deposited three different molecular weights of chitosan coatings, i.e., chitosan oligosaccharide (COS), low molecular weight chitosan (LMW-chitosan) and medium molecular weight chitosan (MMW-chitosan) on sodium alginate hydrogel particles. Both SEM and FTIR results indicated that chitosan was successfully deposited onto the surface of the hydrogel particles. We then evaluated the effect of chitosan MW on the viability of LGG encapsulated in the hydrogels during long-term storage and simulated gastrointestinal digestion. Among them, the hydrogel particles coated with COS prevented the viability loss of LLG during long-term storage at different temperatures (4, 25 and 37 °C). However, we did not find any improvement in the viability of the encapsulated LGG by all three chitosan coatings during simulated digestion.

Effect of Spray-Drying and Freeze-Drying on the Properties of Soybean Hydrolysates

The use of enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction to extract soybean oil will produce soy protein hydrolysates (SPH) that have good antioxidant properties but are bitter and hygroscopic. To microencapsulate these hydrolysates, soy protein isolate/maltodextrin mixtures were used as the carrier. The effects of spray-drying and freeze-drying on the bitterness, hygroscopicity, and antioxidant properties were compared. The properties of different dried samples were compared using solubility, hygroscopicity, moisture content, water activity, flowability, and glass transition temperature (Tg). The results showed that the spray-drying was more effective than freeze-drying. Hygroscopicity was reduced to 18.2 g/100 g, and the Tg value was raised to 80.8°C. The morphology was analyzed using scanning electron microscopy, and the antioxidant properties of the samples were measured using the ABTS˙+ radical scavenging activity. The results showed that spray-dried SPH had more carrier masking, which weakened bitterness, reduced moisture absorption, and had no significant negative impact on its oxidation resistance, solubility, and flowability, and spray-drying after carrier encapsulation of SPH improved the recovery rate.

Protective approaches and mechanisms of microencapsulation to the survival of probiotic bacteria during processing, storage and gastrointestinal digestion: A review

In recent years, there is a rising interest in the number of food products containing probiotic bacteria with favorable health benefit effects. However, the viability of probiotic bacteria is always questionable when they exposure to the harsh environment during processing, storage, and gastrointestinal digestion. To overcome these problems, microencapsulation of cells is currently receiving considerable attention and has obtained valuable effects. According to the drying temperature, the commonly used technologies can be divided into two patterns: high temperature drying (spray drying and fluid bed drying) and low temperature drying (ultrasonic vacuum spray drying, spray chilling, electrospinning, supercritical technique, freeze drying, extrusion, emulsion, enzyme gelation, and impinging aerosol technique). Furthermore, not only should the probiotic bacteria maintain high viability during processing but they also need to keep alive during storage and gastrointestinal digestion, where they additionally suffer from water, oxygen, heat as well as strong acid and bile conditions. This review focuses on demonstrating the effects of different microencapsulation techniques on the survival of bacteria during processing as well as protective approaches and mechanisms to the encapsulated probiotic bacteria during storage and gastrointestinal digestion that currently reported in the literature.