1
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Zhao R, Chang C, He Y, Jiang C, Bao Z, Wang C. Effects of mixing ratio on physicochemical, structural properties and application in lycopene-loaded emulsions of blends of whey protein and pea protein. Food Chem 2024; 463:141062. [PMID: 39236389 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.141062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2024] [Revised: 08/09/2024] [Accepted: 08/28/2024] [Indexed: 09/07/2024]
Abstract
Physicochemical, structural properties and application in lycopene-loaded emulsions of blends of whey protein isolate (WPI) and pea protein isolate (PPI) at varying mass ratios (100/0, 75/25, 50/50, 25/75, 0/100) were investigated. Data indicated that the mass ratios affected the physical, chemical and storage stability of the emulsion by influencing the particle size, zeta-potential, surface hydrophobicity, free sulfhydryl content, and secondary structure of the blends. Particularly, emulsion with a mixing ratio of 75/25 exhibited superior physical stability against salt concentrations (200 and 500 mM), better chemical stability against UV light and heat, and maintained stability over a 30-day storage period. Emulsions stabilized by blends of different ratios exhibited similar digestion behavior, with no significant differences observed in lycopene's transformation stability and bio-accessibility. Data indicated that substitution of whey protein by pea protein is effective in term of emulsifier application and replacement ratio is an important factor need to be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ru Zhao
- Department of Food Science, College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Chuyu Chang
- Department of Food Science, College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Yuxin He
- Department of Food Science, College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Chuanrui Jiang
- Department of Food Science, College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Zhaoxue Bao
- Hinggan League Mengyuan Technology Testing Service Co., Ltd, Ulanhot 137400, China
| | - Cuina Wang
- Department of Food Science, College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
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2
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Kim W, Yiu CCY, Wang Y, Zhou W, Selomulya C. Toward Diverse Plant Proteins for Food Innovation. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024:e2408150. [PMID: 39119828 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202408150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024]
Abstract
This review highlights the development of plant proteins from a wide variety of sources, as most of the research and development efforts to date have been limited to a few sources including soy, chickpea, wheat, and pea. The native structure of plant proteins during production and their impact on food colloids including emulsions, foams, and gels are considered in relation to their fundamental properties, while highlighting the recent developments in the production and processing technologies with regard to their impacts on the molecular properties and aggregation of the proteins. The ability to quantify structural, morphological, and rheological properties can provide a better understanding of the roles of plant proteins in food systems. The applications of plant proteins as dairy and meat alternatives are discussed from the perspective of food structure formation. Future directions on the processing of plant proteins and potential applications are outlined to encourage the generation of more diverse plant-based products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woojeong Kim
- School of Chemical Engineering, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | | | - Yong Wang
- School of Chemical Engineering, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Weibiao Zhou
- Department of Food Science and Technology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117542, Singapore
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3
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Grasberger K, Hammershøj M, Corredig M. Lupin protein-stabilized oil droplets contribute to structuring whey protein emulsion-filled gels. Food Res Int 2024; 178:113987. [PMID: 38309923 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2024.113987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/05/2024]
Abstract
This work aimed to understand the role of lupin protein or mixed lupin-whey protein stabilized oil droplets on the texture and microstructure of a heat-induced whey protein gel. Protein-stabilized emulsions were compared to surfactant-stabilized emulsions to investigate the potential of their interfacial interactions to impart unique structures in the filled gels. The structure development was followed in situ using rheology and the final heat-induced gels were characterized by small and large amplitude oscillatory rheology and confocal microscopy. The development of the gel modulus as well as the final gel properties were linked to the type of interactions between the whey protein matrix and the protein adsorbed at the oil interface. The final gels were selectively dissolved in various buffers, and the results showed that replacing interfacial whey protein with lupin protein resulted in a reduced amount of disulfide bridges, explaining the softer gel in the lupin containing gels compared to those with whey protein. Non-covalent interactions were the main forces involved in the formation of actively filled droplets in the gel network. This work demonstrated that by modulating the interfacial composition of the oil droplets, differing gel structures could be achieved due to differences in the protein-protein interactions between the continuous and the interfacial phase. There is therefore potential for the development of innovative products using lupin-whey protein mixtures, by careful control of the processing steps and the matrix composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Grasberger
- Department of Food Science, CiFood Center for Innovative Foods, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
| | - Marianne Hammershøj
- Department of Food Science, CiFood Center for Innovative Foods, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Milena Corredig
- Department of Food Science, CiFood Center for Innovative Foods, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
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4
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Zhao R, Fu W, Li D, Dong C, Bao Z, Wang C. Structure and functionality of whey protein, pea protein, and mixed whey and pea proteins treated by pH shift or high-intensity ultrasound. J Dairy Sci 2024; 107:726-741. [PMID: 37777001 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2023-23742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/02/2023]
Abstract
Three modifications (pH shift, ultrasound, combined pH shift and ultrasound) induced alterations in pure whey protein isolate (WPI), pea protein isolate (PPI), and mixed whey and pea protein (WPI-PPI) were investigated. The processing effect was related to the protein type and technique used. Solubility of WPI remained unchanged by various treatments. Particle size was enlarged by pH shift while reduced by ultrasound and combined approach. All methods exposed more surface hydrophobic groups on WPI, while pH shift and joint processing was detrimental to its emulsifying activity. The PPI and mixture exhibited similar responses toward the modifications. Solubility of PPI and the blend enhanced in the sequence of pH shift and ultrasound > ultrasound > pH shift. Individual approach expanded while co-handling diminished the particle diameter. Treatments also caused more disclosure of hydrophobic regions in PPI and WPI-PPI and emulsifying activity was ameliorated in the order of pH shift and ultrasound > ultrasound > pH shift.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ru Zhao
- Department of Food Science, College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Wenfei Fu
- Department of Food Science, College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Dan Li
- Department of Food Science, College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Chao Dong
- Key Laboratory of Pathobiology, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Zhaoxue Bao
- Hinggan League Mengyuan Technology Testing Service Co. Ltd., Ulanhot 137400, China
| | - Cuina Wang
- Department of Food Science, College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China.
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5
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Kim W, Wang Y, Vongsvivut J, Ye Q, Selomulya C. On surface composition and stability of β-carotene microcapsules comprising pea/whey protein complexes by synchrotron-FTIR microspectroscopy. Food Chem 2023; 426:136565. [PMID: 37302310 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.136565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This study aims to elucidate the stability of spray dried β-carotene microcapsules by identifying their surface composition using synchrotron-Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) microspectroscopy. To investigate the impact of enzymatic cross-linking and polysaccharide addition on heteroprotein, three wall materials were prepared: pea/whey protein blends (Con), cross-linked pea/whey protein blends (TG), and cross-linked pea/whey protein blends-maltodextrin complex (TG-MD). The TG-MD exhibited the highest encapsulation efficiency (>90 %) after 8 weeks of storage followed by TG and Con. Chemical images obtained using synchrotron-FTIR microspectroscopy confirmed that the TG-MD displayed the least amount of surface oil, followed by TG and Con, due to increasing amphiphilic β-sheet structure of the proteins led by cross-linking and maltodextrin addition. Both enzymatic cross-linking and polysaccharide addition improved the stability of β-carotene microcapsules, demonstrating that pea/whey protein blends with maltodextrin can be utilised as a hybrid wall material for enhancing the encapsulation efficiency of lipophilic bioactive compounds in foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woojeong Kim
- School of Chemical Engineering, UNSW Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Yong Wang
- School of Chemical Engineering, UNSW Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Jitraporn Vongsvivut
- Infrared Microspectroscopy (IRM) Beamline, ANSTO - Australian Synchrotron, 800 Blackburn Road, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia
| | - Qianyu Ye
- School of Chemical Engineering, UNSW Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
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6
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Lima Nascimento LG, Odelli D, Fernandes de Carvalho A, Martins E, Delaplace G, Peres de Sá Peixoto Júnior P, Nogueira Silva NF, Casanova F. Combination of Milk and Plant Proteins to Develop Novel Food Systems: What Are the Limits? Foods 2023; 12:2385. [PMID: 37372596 DOI: 10.3390/foods12122385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Revised: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
In the context of a diet transition from animal protein to plant protein, both for sustainable and healthy scopes, innovative plant-based foods are being developing. A combination with milk proteins has been proposed as a strategy to overcome the scarce functional and sensorial properties of plant proteins. Based on this mixture were designed several colloidal systems such as suspensions, gels, emulsions, and foams which can be found in many food products. This review aims to give profound scientific insights on the challenges and opportunities of developing such binary systems which could soon open a new market category in the food industry. The recent trends in the formulation of each colloidal system, as well as their limits and advantages are here considered. Lastly, new approaches to improve the coexistence of both milk and plant proteins and how they affect the sensorial profile of food products are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Gustavo Lima Nascimento
- Departamento de Tecnologia de Alimentos, Universidade Federal de Viçosa (UFV), Viçosa 36570-900, MG, Brazil
- Laboratoire de Processus aux Interfaces et Hygiène des Matériaux, INRAE, 59009 Lille, France
| | - Davide Odelli
- Departamento de Tecnologia de Alimentos, Universidade Federal de Viçosa (UFV), Viçosa 36570-900, MG, Brazil
| | | | - Evandro Martins
- Departamento de Tecnologia de Alimentos, Universidade Federal de Viçosa (UFV), Viçosa 36570-900, MG, Brazil
| | - Guillaume Delaplace
- Laboratoire de Processus aux Interfaces et Hygiène des Matériaux, INRAE, 59009 Lille, France
| | | | | | - Federico Casanova
- Research Group for Food Production Engineering, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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7
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Gao TT, Liu JX, Gao X, Zhang GQ, Tang XZ. Stability and Digestive Properties of a Dual-Protein Emulsion System Based on Soy Protein Isolate and Whey Protein Isolate. Foods 2023; 12:2247. [PMID: 37297491 PMCID: PMC10252216 DOI: 10.3390/foods12112247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Revised: 05/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The stability and digestive properties of a dual-protein emulsion consisting of soy protein isolate (SPI) and whey protein isolate (WPI) have been systematically studied. The results showed that the particle size and viscosity of the dual-protein emulsion system decreased continuously with the increase in WPI, and this might be related to the large amount of electric charge on the surface of the emulsion droplets. Dual-protein emulsions with ratios of 3:7 and 5:5 showed the highest emulsion activity, while emulsion stability increased with the increase in WPI. The thicker adsorption layer formed at the interface might have contributed to this phenomenon. After in-vitro-simulated digestion, the emulsion droplet particle size increased substantially due to the weakened electrostatic repulsion on the droplet surface, especially for the intestinal digestion phase. Meanwhile, WPI accelerated the release of free fatty acids in the digestion process, which played a positive role in the nutritional value of the dual-protein emulsion. In accelerated oxidation experiments, WPI also improved the antioxidant properties of the dual-protein emulsion system. This study will provide a new insight and necessary theoretical basis for the preparation of dual-protein emulsions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting-Ting Gao
- College of Food Engineering, Harbin University of Commerce, Harbin 150028, China
- College of Food Engineering, Jilin Agricultural Science and Technology University, Jilin 132101, China
| | - Jing-Xue Liu
- College of Food Engineering, Harbin University of Commerce, Harbin 150028, China
- College of Food Engineering, Jilin Agricultural Science and Technology University, Jilin 132101, China
| | - Xin Gao
- College of Food Engineering, Jilin Agricultural Science and Technology University, Jilin 132101, China
| | - Guo-Qi Zhang
- College of Food Engineering, Jilin Agricultural Science and Technology University, Jilin 132101, China
| | - Xiao-Zhi Tang
- College of Food Engineering, Harbin University of Commerce, Harbin 150028, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Modern Grain Circulation and Safety, Key Laboratory of Grains and Oils Quality Control and Processing, College of Food Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Finance and Economics, Nanjing 210023, China
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8
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Kim W, Wang Y, Ye Q, Yao Y, Selomulya C. Enzymatic cross-linking of pea and whey proteins to enhance emulsifying and encapsulation properties. FOOD AND BIOPRODUCTS PROCESSING 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbp.2023.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2023]
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9
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Secondary structure characterization of mixed food protein complexes using microfluidic modulation spectroscopy (MMS). FOOD BIOSCI 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbio.2023.102513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2023]
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10
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Janahar JJ, Balasubramaniam V, Jiménez-Flores R, Campanella OH, Patel B, Ortega-Anaya J. Impact of ultra-shear technology on quality attributes of model dairy-pea protein dispersions with different fat levels. Curr Res Food Sci 2023; 6:100439. [PMID: 36691593 PMCID: PMC9860273 DOI: 10.1016/j.crfs.2023.100439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/08/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the impact of ultra-shear technology (UST) processing on dairy-pea protein dispersions with different fat levels. Raw milk, skim milk, and cream, as well as model dispersions with combinations of dairy products and pea protein (i.e., raw milk with pea protein, skim milk with pea protein, and cream with pea protein) were employed as test samples. UST experiments were conducted at a pressure of 400 MPa and 70 °C shear valve exit temperature. The UST treatment increased the viscosity of the dispersions and the increases depended on the fat level. Dairy-pea protein dispersions from raw milk and skim milk were shear thinning and mathematically described by the power-law model defined by the consistency coefficient, K (Pa·sn) and the flow behavior index, n. UST treated cream + pea protein dispersions produced structures with gel-like characteristics. Microstructure and particle size analysis determined by laser scanning microscope revealed a reduction in particle size after UST treatment in raw milk + pea protein and skim milk + pea protein dispersions up to 7.55 and 8.30 μm, respectively. In contrast, the particle mean diameter of cream + pea protein dispersions increased up to 77.20 μm after the UST treatment. Thus, the effect of UST on the particle size and rheological behavior of the dispersions depended on the fat level. UST-treated dispersions were stable with no visible phase separation or sedimentation upon centrifugation at 4000×g for 30 min (4 °C). Heat treatment and freeze-thaw treatment of UST-treated samples showed stable blends immediately after the treatments, but subsequent centrifugation showed solid separation. Results from the study suggest that UST is a potential technology to produce stable dairy + pea protein liquids foods with different rheological characteristics for diverse applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerish Joyner Janahar
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
| | - V.M. Balasubramaniam
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA,Department of Food Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA,Corresponding author. Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA.
| | - Rafael Jiménez-Flores
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
| | - Osvaldo H. Campanella
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
| | - Bhavesh Patel
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
| | - Joana Ortega-Anaya
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
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11
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Stability and viscoelastic properties of mixed lupin-whey protein at oil-water interfaces depend on mixing sequence. Food Hydrocoll 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2023.108485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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12
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Behavior of mixed pea-whey protein at interfaces and in bulk oil-in-water emulsions. INNOV FOOD SCI EMERG 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ifset.2022.103136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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13
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Zhang M, Fan L, Liu Y, Huang S, Li J. Effects of proteins on emulsion stability: The role of proteins at the oil-water interface. Food Chem 2022; 397:133726. [PMID: 35908463 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.133726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Revised: 06/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
To obtain a stable protein-added emulsion system, researchers have focused on the design of the oil-water interface. This review discussed the updated details of protein adsorption behavior at the oil-water interface. We evaluated methods of monitoring interfacial proteins as well as their strengths and limitations. Based on the effects of structure on protein adsorption, we summarized the contribution of pre-changing methods to adsorption. In addition, the interaction of proteins and other surface-active molecules at the interface had been emphasized. Results showed that protein adsorption is affected by conformation, oil polarity and aqueous environments. The monitoring of interfacial proteins through spectroscopic properties in actual emulsion systems is an emerging trend. Pre-changing could improve the protein adsorption and the purpose of pre-changing of proteins is similar. In the interaction with other surface-active molecules, co-adsorption is desirable. By co-adsorption, the respective advantages can be exploited to obtain a more stable emulsion system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Liuping Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Yuanfa Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Shengquan Huang
- Nuspower Greatsun (Guangdong) Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Guangzhou 510931, China
| | - Jinwei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China.
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14
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Sequential adsorption of whey proteins and low methoxy pectin at the oil-water interface: An interfacial rheology study. Food Hydrocoll 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2022.107570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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15
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Zhang D, Jiang Y, Xiang M, Wu F, Sun M, Du X, Chen L. Biocompatible Polyelectrolyte Complex Nanoparticles for Lycopene Encapsulation Attenuate Oxidative Stress-Induced Cell Damage. Front Nutr 2022; 9:902208. [PMID: 35711553 PMCID: PMC9197169 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2022.902208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, lycopene was successfully encapsulated in polyelectrolyte complex nanoparticles (PEC NPs) fabricated with a negatively charged polysaccharide, TLH-3, and a positively charged sodium caseinate (SC) via electrostatic interactions. Results showed that the lycopene-loaded PEC NPs were spherical in shape, have a particle size of 241 nm, have a zeta potential of −23.6 mV, and have encapsulation efficiency of 93.6%. Thus, lycopene-loaded PEC NPs could serve as effective lycopene carriers which affected the physicochemical characteristics of the encapsulated lycopene and improved its water dispersibility, storage stability, antioxidant capacity, and sustained release ability in aqueous environments when compared with the free lycopene. Moreover, encapsulated lycopene could enhance the cells' viability, prevent cell apoptosis, and protect cells from oxidative damage through the Nrf2/HO-1/AKT signalling pathway, via upregulation of antioxidase activities and downregulation of MDA and ROS levels. Therefore, the biocompatible lycopene-loaded PEC NPs have considerable potential use for the encapsulation of hydrophobic nutraceuticals in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongjing Zhang
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Eco-Engineering and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Anhui University, Hefei, China.,School of Biological and Food Engineering, Suzhou University, Suzhou, China
| | - Yun Jiang
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Eco-Engineering and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Anhui University, Hefei, China
| | - Ming Xiang
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Eco-Engineering and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Anhui University, Hefei, China
| | - Fen Wu
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Eco-Engineering and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Anhui University, Hefei, China
| | - Min Sun
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Eco-Engineering and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Anhui University, Hefei, China
| | - XianFeng Du
- State Key Laboratory of Tea Plant Biology and Utilization, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Lei Chen
- Anhui Key Laboratory of Eco-Engineering and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Anhui University, Hefei, China
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16
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Zhou X, Zhang C, Cao W, Zhou C, Zheng H, Zhao L. A Comparative Functional Analysis of Pea Protein and Grass Carp Protein Mixture via Blending and Co-Precipitation. Foods 2021; 10:foods10123037. [PMID: 34945588 PMCID: PMC8701264 DOI: 10.3390/foods10123037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Currently, the application of protein mixture derived from plants and animals is of great interest to the food industry. However, the synergistic effects of isolated protein blends (BL) are not well established. Herein, the development of a more effective method (co-precipitation) for the production of protein mixtures from pea and grass carp is reported. Pea protein isolate (PPI), grass carp protein isolate (CPI), and pea–carp protein co-precipitates (Co) were prepared via isoelectric solubilization/precipitation using peas and grass carp as raw materials. Meanwhile, the BL was obtained by blending PPI with CPI. In addition, the subunit composition and functional properties of Co and BL were investigated. The results show that the ratios of vicilin to legumin α + β and the soluble aggregates of Co were 2.82- and 1.69-fold higher than that of BL. The surface hydrophobicity of Co was less than that of BL, PPI, and CPI (p < 0.05). The solubility of Co was greater than that of BL, PPI, and CPI (p < 0.05), and the foaming activity was higher than that of BL and CPI (p < 0.05) but slightly lower than that of PPI. In addition, based on the emulsifying activity index, particle size, microstructure, and viscosity, Co had better emulsifying properties than BL, PPI, and CPI. The study not only confirmed that co-precipitation was more effective than blending for the preparation of mixed protein using PPI and CPI but also provided a standard of reference for obtaining a mixture of plant and animal proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohu Zhou
- College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China; (X.Z.); (W.C.); (C.Z.); (H.Z.)
- College of Food and Chemical Engineering, Shaoyang University, Shaoyang 422000, China;
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Products Processing and Safety, Zhanjiang 524088, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Soybean Products Processing and Safety Control, Shaoyang 422000, China
| | - Chaohua Zhang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China; (X.Z.); (W.C.); (C.Z.); (H.Z.)
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Products Processing and Safety, Zhanjiang 524088, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Seafood Deep Processing, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian 116034, China
- Correspondence:
| | - Wenhong Cao
- College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China; (X.Z.); (W.C.); (C.Z.); (H.Z.)
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Products Processing and Safety, Zhanjiang 524088, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Seafood Deep Processing, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian 116034, China
| | - Chunxia Zhou
- College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China; (X.Z.); (W.C.); (C.Z.); (H.Z.)
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Products Processing and Safety, Zhanjiang 524088, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Seafood Deep Processing, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian 116034, China
| | - Huina Zheng
- College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China; (X.Z.); (W.C.); (C.Z.); (H.Z.)
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Products Processing and Safety, Zhanjiang 524088, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Seafood Deep Processing, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian 116034, China
| | - Liangzhong Zhao
- College of Food and Chemical Engineering, Shaoyang University, Shaoyang 422000, China;
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Soybean Products Processing and Safety Control, Shaoyang 422000, China
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17
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Hinderink EB, Boire A, Renard D, Riaublanc A, Sagis LM, Schroën K, Bouhallab S, Famelart MH, Gagnaire V, Guyomarc'h F, Berton-Carabin CC. Combining plant and dairy proteins in food colloid design. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cocis.2021.101507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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18
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Ma X, Chatterton DE. Strategies to improve the physical stability of sodium caseinate stabilized emulsions: A literature review. Food Hydrocoll 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.106853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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19
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Zhang M, Wang L, Liu Y, Li J. Effects of antioxidants, proteins, and their combination on emulsion oxidation. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 62:8137-8160. [PMID: 33998841 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1925869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Lipid oxidation largely determines the quality of emulsion systems as well as their final products. Therefore, an increasing number of studies have focused on the control of lipid oxidation, particularly on its mechanism. In this review, we discuss the factors affecting the efficiency of antioxidants in emulsion systems, such as the free radical scavenging ability, specifically emphasizing on the interfacial behavior and the influence of surfactants on the interfacial distribution of antioxidants. To enhance the antioxidant efficiency of antioxidants in emulsion systems, we discussed whether the combination of antioxidants and proteins can improve antioxidant effects. The types, mixing applications, structures, interface behaviors, effects of surfactants on interfacial proteins, and the location of proteins are associated with the antioxidant effects of proteins in emulsion systems. Antioxidants and proteins can be combined in both covalent and non-covalent ways. The fabrication conditions, conjugation methods, interface behaviors, and characterization methods of these two combinations are also discussed. Our review provides useful information to guide better strategies for providing stability and controlling lipid oxidation in emulsions. The main challenges and future trends in controlling lipid oxidation in complex emulsion systems are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Lifeng Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Finance and Economics, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuanfa Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinwei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
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20
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Guyomarc'h F, Arvisenet G, Bouhallab S, Canon F, Deutsch SM, Drigon V, Dupont D, Famelart MH, Garric G, Guédon E, Guyot T, Hiolle M, Jan G, Le Loir Y, Lechevalier V, Nau F, Pezennec S, Thierry A, Valence F, Gagnaire V. Mixing milk, egg and plant resources to obtain safe and tasty foods with environmental and health benefits. Trends Food Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2020.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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21
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Hinderink EBA, Sagis L, Schroën K, Berton-Carabin CC. Sequential adsorption and interfacial displacement in emulsions stabilized with plant-dairy protein blends. J Colloid Interface Sci 2021; 583:704-713. [PMID: 33075603 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2020.09.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
HYPOTHESIS Many traditional or emergent emulsion products contain mixtures of proteins, resulting in complex, non-equilibrated interfacial structures. It is expected that protein displacement at oil-water interfaces depends on the sequence in which proteins are introduced during emulsion preparation, and on its initial interfacial composition. EXPERIMENTS We produced emulsions with whey, pea or a whey-pea protein blend and added extra protein post-emulsification. The surface load was measured indirectly via the continuous phase, or directly via the creamed phase. The interfacial composition was monitored over a three-day period using SDS-PAGE densitometry. We compared these findings with results obtained using an automated drop tensiometer with bulk-phase exchange to highlight the effect of sequential protein adsorption on interfacial tension and dilatational rheology. FINDINGS Addition of a second protein increased the surface load; especially pea proteins adsorbed to pre-adsorbed whey proteins, leading to thick interfacial layers. The addition of whey proteins to a pea protein- or whey-pea protein blend-stabilized emulsion led to significant displacement of the pea proteins by β-lactoglobulin. We determined that protein-protein interactions were the driving force for this displacement, rather than a decrease in interfacial tension. These outcomes could be instrumental in defining new strategies for plant-animal protein hybrid products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma B A Hinderink
- TiFN, P.O. Box 557, 6700 AN Wageningen, the Netherlands; Laboratory of Food Process Engineering, Bornse Weilanden 9, 6708 WG Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Leonard Sagis
- Laboratory of Physics and Physical Chemistry of Foods, Bornse Weilanden 9, 6708 WG Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Karin Schroën
- Laboratory of Food Process Engineering, Bornse Weilanden 9, 6708 WG Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Claire C Berton-Carabin
- Laboratory of Food Process Engineering, Bornse Weilanden 9, 6708 WG Wageningen, the Netherlands; INRAE, UR BIA, F-44316 Nantes, France
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22
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Wu C, Wang T, Ren C, Ma W, Wu D, Xu X, Wang LS, Du M. Advancement of food-derived mixed protein systems: Interactions, aggregations, and functional properties. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2020; 20:627-651. [PMID: 33325130 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Recently, interests in binary protein systems have been developed considerably ascribed to the sustainability, environment-friendly, rich in nutrition, low cost, and tunable mechanical properties of these systems. However, the molecular coalition is challenged by the complex mechanisms of interaction, aggregation, gelation, and emulsifying of the mixed system in which another protein is introduced. To overcome these fundamental difficulties and better modulate the structural and functional properties of binary systems, efforts have been steered to gain basic information regarding the underlying dynamics, theories, and physicochemical characteristics of mixed systems. Therefore, the present review provides an overview of the current studies on the behaviors of proteins in such systems and highlights shortcomings and future challenges when applied in scientific fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Wu
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Seafood Deep Processing, National Engineering Research Center of Seafood, School of Food Science and Technology, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian, China
| | - Tao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Chao Ren
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Seafood Deep Processing, National Engineering Research Center of Seafood, School of Food Science and Technology, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian, China
| | - Wuchao Ma
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Seafood Deep Processing, National Engineering Research Center of Seafood, School of Food Science and Technology, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian, China
| | - Di Wu
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Seafood Deep Processing, National Engineering Research Center of Seafood, School of Food Science and Technology, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian, China
| | - Xianbing Xu
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Seafood Deep Processing, National Engineering Research Center of Seafood, School of Food Science and Technology, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian, China
| | - Li-Shu Wang
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
| | - Ming Du
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Seafood Deep Processing, National Engineering Research Center of Seafood, School of Food Science and Technology, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian, China
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23
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Francisco CRL, de Oliveira Júnior FD, Marin G, Alvim ID, Hubinger MD. Plant proteins at low concentrations as natural emulsifiers for an effective orange essential oil microencapsulation by spray drying. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2020.125470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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24
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25
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Caballero S, Davidov-Pardo G. Comparison of legume and dairy proteins for the impact of Maillard conjugation on nanoemulsion formation, stability, and lutein color retention. Food Chem 2020; 338:128083. [PMID: 33091984 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
While dairy proteins have traditionally been used to stabilize nanoemulsions, there is a trend towards plant-based formulations. Additionally, both types of protein are poorly soluble near their isoelectric point. The main goals of this research were to develop and characterize Maillard conjugates from pea protein (PPI) or caseinate and dextran, and to evaluate the physical stability of nanoemulsions made with such emulsifiers at various ionic strengths, pH = 4.6, and temperatures during storage, as well as lutein color retention over storage. Protein conjugates formed nanoemulsions with diameters of 125 ± 12 nm (PDI = 0.13 ± 0.00) and 269 ± 36 nm (PDI = 0.76 ± 0.42) (pH = 7) for caseinate and PPI, respectively. Conjugation improved the physical stability (droplet size) of emulsions at the isoelectric point, during storage at 4-55 °C, and in ionic solutions. Lutein color degradation was better associated with particle size than conjugation and was lowest for PPI-stabilized emulsions. This study suggests that Maillard conjugation could improve PPI emulsification properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Caballero
- Nutrition and Food Science Dept., California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, 3801 West Temple Ave, Pomona, CA 91768, USA
| | - Gabriel Davidov-Pardo
- Nutrition and Food Science Dept., California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, 3801 West Temple Ave, Pomona, CA 91768, USA.
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26
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Ge J, Sun CX, Corke H, Gul K, Gan RY, Fang Y. The health benefits, functional properties, modifications, and applications of pea (Pisum sativum L.) protein: Current status, challenges, and perspectives. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2020; 19:1835-1876. [PMID: 33337084 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 05/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the development and application of plant proteins have drawn increasing scientific and industrial interests. Pea (Pisum sativum L.) is an important source of high-quality vegetable protein in the human diet. Its protein components are generally considered hypoallergenic, and many studies have highlighted the health benefits associated with the consumption of pea protein. Pea protein and its hydrolysates (pea protein hydrolysates [PPH]) possess health benefits such as antioxidant, antihypertensive, and modulating intestinal bacteria activities, as well as various functional properties, including solubility, water- and oil-holding capacities, and emulsifying, foaming, and gelling properties. However, the application of pea protein in the food system is limited due to its poor functional performances. Several frequently applied modification methods, including physical, chemical, enzymatic, and combined treatments, have been used for pea protein to improve its functional properties and expand its food applications. To date, different applications of pea protein in the food system have been extensively studied, for example, encapsulation for bioactive ingredients, edible films, extruded products and substitution for cereal flours, fats, and animal proteins. This article reviews the current status of the knowledge regarding pea protein, focusing on its health benefits, functional properties, and structural modifications, and comprehensively summarizes its potential applications in the food industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiao Ge
- Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Cui-Xia Sun
- Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Harold Corke
- Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Khalid Gul
- Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Ren-You Gan
- Research Center for Plants and Human Health, Institute of Urban Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Yapeng Fang
- Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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27
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Hinderink EBA, Sagis L, Schroën K, Berton-Carabin CC. Behavior of plant-dairy protein blends at air-water and oil-water interfaces. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2020; 192:111015. [PMID: 32416469 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2020.111015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Recent work suggests that using blends of dairy and plant proteins could be a promising way to mitigate sustainability and functionality concerns. Many proteins form viscoelastic layers at fluid interfaces and provide physical stabilization to emulsion droplets; yet, the interfacial behavior of animal-plant protein blends is greatly underexplored. In the present work, we considered pea protein isolate (PPI) as a model legume protein, which was blended with well-studied dairy proteins (whey protein isolate (WPI) or sodium caseinate (SC)). We performed dilatational rheology at the air-water and oil-water interface using an automated drop tensiometer to chart the behavior and structure of the interfacial films, and to highlight differences between films made with either blends, or their constituting components only. The rheological response of the blend-stabilized interfaces deviated from what could be expected from averaging those of the individual proteins and depended on the proteins used; e.g. at the air-water interface, the response of the caseinate-pea protein blend was similar to that of PPI only. At the oil-water interface, the PPI and WPI-PPI interfaces gave comparable responses upon deformation and formed less elastic layers compared to the WPI-stabilized interface. Blending SC with PPI gave stronger interfacial layers compared to SC alone, but the layers were less stiff compared to the layers formed with WPI, PPI and WPI-PPI. In general, higher elastic moduli and more rigid interfacial layers were formed at the air-water interface, compared to the oil-water interface, except for PPI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma B A Hinderink
- TiFN, P.O. Box 557, 6700 AN, Wageningen, the Netherlands; Laboratory of Food Process Engineering, Bornse Weilanden 9, 6708 WG Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Leonard Sagis
- Laboratory of Physics and Physical Chemistry of Foods, Bornse Weilanden 9, 6708 WG Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Karin Schroën
- Laboratory of Food Process Engineering, Bornse Weilanden 9, 6708 WG Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Claire C Berton-Carabin
- Laboratory of Food Process Engineering, Bornse Weilanden 9, 6708 WG Wageningen, the Netherlands
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28
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Impact of heating treatments on physical stability and lipid-protein co-oxidation in oil-in-water emulsion prepared with soy protein isolates. Food Hydrocoll 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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29
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Synergistic stabilisation of emulsions by blends of dairy and soluble pea proteins: Contribution of the interfacial composition. Food Hydrocoll 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.105206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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30
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Heat-induced and acid-induced gelation of dairy/plant protein dispersions and emulsions. Curr Opin Food Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cofs.2019.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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31
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Physicochemical Properties and Cellular Uptake of Astaxanthin-Loaded Emulsions. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24040727. [PMID: 30781596 PMCID: PMC6412677 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24040727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2018] [Revised: 02/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Astaxanthin, a natural pigment carotenoid, is well known for its potential benefits to human health. However, its applications in the food industry are limited, due to its poor water-solubility and chemical instability. Six different emulsifiers were used to prepare astaxanthin-loaded emulsions, including whey protein isolate (WPI), polymerized whey protein (PWP), WPI-lecithin, PWP-lecithin, lecithin, and Tween20. The droplet size, zeta potential, storage stability, cytotoxicity, and astaxanthin uptake by Caco-2 cells were all investigated. The results showed that the droplet size of the emulsions ranged from 194 to 287 nm, depending on the type of emulsifier used. The entrapment efficiency of astaxanthin was as high as 90%. The astaxanthin-loaded emulsions showed good physicochemical stability during storage at 4 °C. The emulsifier type had a significant impact on the degradation rate of astaxanthin (p < 0.05). Cellular uptake of astaxanthin encapsulated into the emulsions was significantly higher than free astaxanthin (p < 0.05). Emulsion stabilized with WPI had the highest cellular uptake of astaxanthin (10.0 ± 0.2%), followed, in order, by that with PWP (8.49 ± 0.1%), WPI-lecithin (5.97 ± 0.1%), PWP-lecithin (5.05 ± 0.1%), lecithin (3.37 ± 0.2%), and Tween 20 (2.1 ± 0.1%). Results indicate that the whey protein-based emulsion has a high potential for improving the cellular uptake of astaxanthin.
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