A novel chitinase isolated from Vicia faba and its antifungal activity

DVL, lectin from Dioclea violacea seeds, has multiples mechanisms of action against Candida spp via carbohydrate recognition domain

Lectins are proteins of non-immunological origin with the ability to bind to carbohydrates reversibly. They emerge as an alternative to conventional antifungals, given the ability to interact with carbohydrates in the fungal cell wall inhibiting fungal growth. The lectin from D. violacea (DVL) already has its activity described as anti-candida in some species. Here, we observed the anti-candida effect of DVL on C. albicans, C. krusei and C. parapsilosis and its multiple mechanisms of action toward the yeasts. Additionally, it was observed that DVL induces membrane and cell wall damage and ROS overproduction. DVL was also able to cause an imbalance in the redox system of the cells, interact with ergosterol, inhibit ergosterol biosynthesis, and induce cytochrome c release from the mitochondrial membrane. These results endorse the potential application of DVL in developing a new antifungal drug to fight back against fungal resistance.

Tissue culture-based genetic improvement of fava bean (Vicia faba L.): analysis on previous achievements and future perspectives

Fava bean is an extremely important legume and serves immense potential to function as an ingredient as pulse proteins in human diet. Bearing the proficiency of yielding magnanimous amount of functional and nutritional ingredients, this bean deserves to replace any other leguminous crop too. The instability of fava bean in its yield makes breeding for crop improvement difficult, and its high susceptibility to a number of abiotic and biotic stresses additionally results in unstable yields. The self-incompatibility leads to the formation of a limited genetic pool and shows a slow progress in breeding. The plant is highly recalcitrant, making it an onerous task to micropropagate or regenerate fava beans under in vitro conditions. Another fly in the ointment is the release of phenolic compounds by the plant. There are several endeavours that have been made to establish in vitro regeneration, protoplast culture, and genetic transformation and to genetically improve this plant. Nonetheless there are a number of promising cutting-edge technologies that are yet to be harnessed in order to ensure its comprehensive and sustainable genetic improvement. The in vitro-based technologies of this legume and its untraveled path in the plant tissue culture-mediated approaches can assist further genetic manipulation of this plant species in a smoother manner and at an exponential rate. Creation of a single review comprising all the updates and genetic advancements in fava bean is an absolute necessity of the hour. Thus, the importance of this review remains at the peak as it covers a vast range of information, starting from the basic description to the utmost modern stages of advancement in the selected crop. Overall interpretation of the review is aimed at encouraging readers to focus on almost all possible dimensions of international research, already executed, and is being executed in fava bean, thereby helping to understand the demand and advantages of the crop, even at the molecular level.Key points• Fava bean, commonly known as "poor man's meat", is a protein-rich legume with multiple nutritional and pharmacological benefits.• Its highly recalcitrant response makes in vitro interventions quite challenging for its genetic improvement.• This review delves into biotechnological interventions for its advancements to date and highlights major hurdles and potential research solutions to ensure comprehensive genetic improvement.

Biochemical characterization of a novel acidic chitinase with antifungal activity from Paenibacillus xylanexedens Z2-4

A chitinase gene (PxChi52) from Paenibacillus xylanexedens Z2-4 was cloned and heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3). PxChi52 shared the highest identity of 91% with a glycoside hydrolase family 18 chitinase (ChiD) from Bacillus circulans. The recombinant enzyme (PxChi52) was purified and biochemically characterized. PxChi52 had a molecular mass of 52.8 kDa. It was most active at pH 4.5 and 65 °C, respectively, and stable in a wide pH range of 4.0-13.0 and up to 50 °C. The enzyme exhibited the highest specific activity of 16.0 U/mg towards colloidal chitin, followed by ethylene glycol chitin (5.4 U/mg) and ball milled chitin (0.4 U/mg). The K_m and V_max values of PxChi52 towards colloidal chitin were determined to be 3.06 mg/mL and 71.38 U/mg, respectively, PxChi52 hydrolyzed colloidal chitin and chitooligosaccharides with degree of polymerization 2-5 to release mainly N-acetyl chitobiose. In addition, PxChi52 displayed inhibition effects on the growth of some phytopathogenic fungi, including Alternaria alstroemeriae, Botrytis cinerea, Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Valsa mali. The unique properties of PxChi52 may enable it potential application in agriculture field as a biocontrol agent.

Biotechnological Eminence of Chitinases: A Focus on Thermophilic Enzyme Sources, Production Strategies and Prominent Applications

BACKGROUND

Chitin, the second most abundant polysaccharide in nature, is a constantly valuable and renewable raw material after cellulose. Due to advancement in technology, industrial interest has grown to take advantage of the chitin.

OBJECTIVE

Now, biomass is being treated with diverse microbial enzymes or cells for the production of desired products under best industrial conditions. Glycosidic bonds in chitin structure are degraded by chitinase enzymes, which are characterized into number of glycoside hydrolase (GHs) families.

METHODS

Thermophilic microorganisms are remarkable sources of industrially important thermostable enzymes, having ability to survive harsh industrial processing conditions. Thermostable chitinases have an edge over mesophilic chitinases as they can hydrolyse the substrate at relatively high temperatures and exhibit decreased viscosity, significantly reduced contamination risk, thermal and chemical stability and increased solubility. Various methods are employed to purify the enzyme and increase its yield by optimizing various parameters such as temperature, pH, agitation, and by investigating the effect of different chemicals and metal ions etc. Results: Thermostable chitinase enzymes show high specific activity at elevated temperature which distinguish them from mesophiles. Genetic engineering can be used for further improvement of natural chitinases, and unlimited potential for the production of thermophilic chitinases has been highlighted due to advancement in synthetic biological techniques. Thermostable chitinases are then used in different fields such as bioremediation, medicine, agriculture and pharmaceuticals.

CONCLUSION

This review will provide information about chitinases, biotechnological potential of thermostable enzyme and the methods by which they are being produced and optimized for several industrial applications. Some of the applications of thermostable chitinases have also been briefly described.

Improvement in the in vitro Digestibility of Shrimp Meal by the Addition of Persimmon Peel

The present study was conducted to analyze the chemical properties of persimmon peel (PP) and the in vitro digestibility of shrimp meal (SM) diets containing PP. Discussions whether PP can be used as a feed additive to promote digestion of SM in chickens are also included. The chemical composition and chitinase activity of dried PP was studied. SM diets containing PP were formulated according to the 4 by 6 factorial design: 4 levels of SM (0%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) × 6 levels of PP (0%, 2%, 4%, 6%, 8%, and 10%). The in vitro digestibility of dry matter (IVDMD), crude protein (IVCPD), and chitin (IVCD) was also studied. PP was rich in nitrogen-free extract (NFE, about 74%) and tannin (2.8%), and the highest chitinase activity of PP was observed at pH 4.5. Approximately 50% of chitinase activity was also observed at acidic (3.0) and alkaline (8.0) pH. Its activity was slightly affected by pepsin treatment. IVDMD increased upon addition of up to 8% PP, but decreased with an increase in the level of SM. When PP level was increased up to 6%, IVCPD in the group containing 0% SM, changed slightly; however, an increasing trend was observed in the other groups. When PP level was more than 6%, IVCPD decreased in all the groups. IVCD increased dose-dependently with increasing level of PP and decreased with increasing level of SM. In conclusion, PP was rich in NFE, had high chitinase activity, and improved all digestibility parameters, such as IVDMD, IVCPD, and IVCD, in SM diets where the PP level was under 6%. Thus, up to 6% of PP can be safely included in SM diets as a digestion promoter.

Vicia plants-A comprehensive review on chemical composition and phytopharmacology

The plants belonging to the genus Vicia are of great interest as a source of many bioactive compounds and micronutrients. A snapshot of their cultivation, habitat, main components, from which essential oils can be obtained, is given. The traditional medicinal uses of Vicia plants are also reported, as well as the wide spectrum of the main biological activities attributed to Vicia plants is discussed regarding potential health beneficial properties, in particular anti-Parkinson, anticholinesterase, antidepressant, anticonvulsant, antimicrobial, cytotoxic, antioxidant, antiinflammatory and antinociceptive, antidiabetic, antihemolytic, anticoagulant, estrogenic, diuretic, antihypoxic activities.

Characterization of a Novel Chitinase from Sweet Potato and Its Fungicidal Effect against Ceratocystis fimbriata

Black rot, caused by Ceratocystis fimbriata, is a destructive disease of sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas). In this study, a novel chitinase (IbChiA) was screened from sweet potatoes, which showed a remarkably higher expression level in resistant varieties than in susceptible ones after inoculation with C. fimbriata. Sequence analysis indicated that IbChiA belongs to family 19 class II extracellular chitinase with a MW of 26.3 kDa and pI of 5.96. Recombinant IbChiA, produced by Pichia pastoris, displayed antifungal activity and stability. IbChiA could restrain the mycelium extension of C. fimbriata. FDA/PI double staining combined with transmission electron microscopy observation revealed the remarkable fungicidal effect of IbChiA on the conidia of C. fimbriata. The disease symptoms on the surface of slices and tuberous roots of sweet potatoes were significantly reduced after treatment with IbChiA. These results indicated that IbChiA could be used as a potential biofungicide to replace chemical fungicides.

Role of membrane sterol and redox system in the anti-candida activity reported for Mo-CBP2, a protein from Moringa oleifera seeds

Plant proteins are emerging as an alternative to conventional treatments against candidiasis. The aim of this study was to better understand the mechanism of action of Mo-CBP₂ against Candida spp, evaluating redox system activity, lipid peroxidation, DNA degradation, cytochrome c release, medium acidification, and membrane interaction. Anti-candida activity of Mo-CBP₂ decreased in the presence of ergosterol, which was not observed with antioxidant agents. C. albicans treated with Mo-CBP₂ also had catalase and peroxidase activities inhibited, while superoxide dismutase was increased. Mo-CBP₂ increased the lipid peroxidation, but it did not alter the ergosterol profile in live cells. External medium acidification was strongly inhibited, and cytochrome c release and DNA degradation were detected. Mo-CBP₂ interacts with cell membrane constituents, changes redox system enzymes in C. albicans and causes lipid peroxidation by ROS overproduction. DNA degradation and cytochrome c release suggest apoptotic or DNAse activity. Lipid peroxidation and H⁺-ATPases inhibition may induce the process of apoptosis. Finally, Mo-CBP₂ did not have a cytotoxic effect in mammalian Vero cells. This study highlights the biotechnological potential of Mo-CBP₂ as a promising molecule with low toxicity and potent activity. Further studies should be performed to better understand its mode of action and toxicity.

Comprehensive Analysis of the Chitinase Gene Family in Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.): From Gene Identification and Evolution to Expression in Response to Fusarium oxysporum

Chitinases, a subgroup of pathogenesis-related proteins, are responsible for catalyzing the hydrolysis of chitin. Accumulating reports indicate that chitinases play a key role in plant defense against chitin-containing pathogens and are therefore good targets for defense response studies. Here, we undertook an integrated bioinformatic and expression analysis of the cucumber chitinases gene family to identify its role in defense against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cucumerinum. A total of 28 putative chitinase genes were identified in the cucumber genome and classified into five classes based on their conserved catalytic and binding domains. The expansion of the chitinase gene family was due mainly to tandem duplication events. The expression pattern of chitinase genes was organ-specific and 14 genes were differentially expressed in response to F. oxysporum challenge of fusarium wilt-susceptible and resistant lines. Furthermore, a class I chitinase, CsChi23, was constitutively expressed at high levels in the resistant line and may play a crucial role in building a basal defense and activating a rapid immune response against F. oxysporum. Whole-genome re-sequencing of both lines provided clues for the diverse expression patterns observed. Collectively, these results provide useful genetic resource and offer insights into the role of chitinases in cucumber-F. oxysporum interaction.

A biophysical and structural study of two chitinases from Agave tequilana and their potential role as defense proteins

Plant chitinases are enzymes that have several functions, including providing protection against pathogens. Agave tequilana is an economically important plant that is poorly studied. Here, we identified a chitinase from short reads of the A. tequilana transcriptome (AtChi1). A second chitinase, differing by only six residues from the first, was isolated from total RNA of plants infected with Fusarium oxysporum (AtChi2). Both enzymes were overexpressed in Escherichia coli and analysis of their sequences indicated that they belong to the class I glycoside hydrolase family19, whose members exhibit two domains: a carbohydrate-binding module and a catalytic domain, connected by a flexible linker. Activity assays and thermal shift experiments demonstrated that the recombinant Agave enzymes are highly thermostable acidic endochitinases with Tm values of 75 °C and 71 °C. Both exhibit a molecular mass close to 32 kDa, as determined by MALDI-TOF, and experimental pIs of 3.7 and 3.9. Coupling small-angle x-ray scattering information with homology modeling and docking simulations allowed us to structurally characterize both chitinases, which notably show different interactions in the binding groove. Even when the six different amino acids are all exposed to solvent in the loops located near the linker and opposite to the binding site, they confer distinct kinetic parameters against colloidal chitin and similar affinity for (GlnNAc)_6, as shown by isothermal titration calorimetry. Interestingly, binding is more enthalpy-driven for AtChi2. Whereas the physiological role of these chitinases remains unknown, we demonstrate that they exhibit important antifungal activity against chitin-rich fungi such as Aspergillus sp. DATABASE: SAXS structural data are available in the SASBDB database with accession numbers SASDDE7 and SASDDA6. ENZYMES: Chitinases (EC3.2.1.14).

A chitinase with antifungal activity from naked oat (Avena chinensis) seeds

A chitinase was purified from naked oat (Avena chinensis) seeds using simple chromatographic techniques. Its molecular weight and isoelectric point were determined as 35 kDa and 8.9, respectively. The purified chitinase exhibited specific activity of 3.6 U/mg and 15.6% yield using colloidal chitin as substrate. Partial amino acid sequence analysis and homology search indicated that it probably belonged to Class I plant chitinase, glycosyl hydrolase family 19. With chitin as substrate, the optimum pH and temperature of the chitinase were pH 7.0 and 40°C, respectively. The chitinase was remarkably stable from 30°C up to 50°C, but was inactivated at high temperatures above 85°C. Antifungal activity in vitro tests demonstrated this purified chitinase had potent, dose-dependent inhibitory activity against the fungi Panus conchatus and Trichoderma reesei. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Chitinase has broad applications in many fields including the food industry and is recognized as one of the antifungal substances with potential use in plant disease resistance or biological control in agriculture. This study developed cost-effective purification methods for producing chitinase from naked oat (Avena chinensis) seeds, which may favor large-scale production of the enzyme. The remarkable stability of the chitinase at moderate temperatures (30°C-50°C), makes it a potentially useful enzyme in bioprocessing to produce chitooligosaccharides for various applications in the food, health, and agriculture sectors.

Purification, physicochemical and thermodynamic studies of antifungal chitinase with production of bioactive chitosan-oligosaccharide from newly isolated Aspergillus griseoaurantiacus KX010988

In our search for chitinase and chitosanase producer from unconventional sources, the marine-derived fungus Aspergillus griseoaurantiacus KX010988 was obviously the best producer of the highest chitinase and chitosanase activities by solid state fermentation of potato shells. Chitinase was purified in three steps involving ammonium sulphate precipitation, DEAE-cellulose ion-exchange chromatography and Sephacryl S-300 gel chromatography. 12.55 fold increase in purity with a recovery of 17.6 was obtained. The molecular mass of the purified chitinase was found to be 130kDa. It was optimally active at pH 4.5 and 40°C. K_m and V_max values were 0.22mgmL^-1 and 19.6μmolemin^-1mg^-1 respectively. Mn²⁺ and Zn²⁺ ions lead to increased chitinase activity. While Fe²⁺and Cu²⁺ions strongly inhibited the chitinase activity. The thermodynamics of pure chitinase including activation energy for thermal denaturation (E_a,d), change of free energy (ΔG_d), enthalpy(ΔH_d), entropy(ΔS_d) and half life values (T_1/2) at 40, 50 and 60°C were determined. Chitinase showed antifungal activity against pathogenic fungus Fusarium solani. Chitosanase was partially purified by acetone precipitation (50-75%) v/v concentration. The hydrolytic products of moderate molecular weight of chitosan by chitosanase were analyzed by thin layer chromatography (TLC) after 12 and 24h respectively. Chitosan-oligosaccharides showed good antibacterial and antioxidant activities.

A Chitin-binding Protein Purified from Moringa oleifera Seeds Presents Anticandidal Activity by Increasing Cell Membrane Permeability and Reactive Oxygen Species Production

Candida species are opportunistic pathogens that infect immunocompromised and/or immunosuppressed patients, particularly in hospital facilities, that besides representing a significant threat to health increase the risk of mortality. Apart from echinocandins and triazoles, which are well tolerated, most of the antifungal drugs used for candidiasis treatment can cause side effects and lead to the development of resistant strains. A promising alternative to the conventional treatments is the use of plant proteins. M. oleifera Lam. is a plant with valuable medicinal properties, including antimicrobial activity. This work aimed to purify a chitin-binding protein from M. oleifera seeds and to evaluate its antifungal properties against Candida species. The purified protein, named Mo-CBP₂, represented about 0.2% of the total seed protein and appeared as a single band on native PAGE. By mass spectrometry, Mo-CBP₂ presented 13,309 Da. However, by SDS-PAGE, Mo-CBP₂ migrated as a single band with an apparent molecular mass of 23,400 Da. Tricine-SDS-PAGE of Mo-CBP₂ under reduced conditions revealed two protein bands with apparent molecular masses of 7,900 and 4,600 Da. Altogether, these results suggest that Mo-CBP₂ exists in different oligomeric forms. Moreover, Mo-CBP₂ is a basic glycoprotein (pI 10.9) with 4.1% (m/m) sugar and it did not display hemagglutinating and hemolytic activities upon rabbit and human erythrocytes. A comparative analysis of the sequence of triptic peptides from Mo-CBP₂ in solution, after LC-ESI-MS/MS, revealed similarity with other M. oleifera proteins, as the 2S albumin Mo-CBP₃ and flocculating proteins, and 2S albumins from different species. Mo-CBP₂ possesses in vitro antifungal activity against Candida albicans, C. parapsilosis, C. krusei, and C. tropicalis, with MIC₅₀ and MIC₉₀ values ranging between 9.45–37.90 and 155.84–260.29 μM, respectively. In addition, Mo-CBP₂ (18.90 μM) increased the cell membrane permeabilization and reactive oxygen species production in C. albicans and promoted degradation of circular plasmid DNA (pUC18) from Escherichia coli. The data presented in this study highlight the potential use of Mo-CBP₂ as an anticandidal agent, based on its ability to inhibit Candida spp. growth with apparently low toxicity on mammalian cells.

Biochemical Characterization of a Novel Acidic Exochitinase from Rhizomucor miehei with Antifungal Activity

A novel chitinase gene (RmChi44) from Rhizomucor miehei was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli as an intracellular soluble and active protein. The recombinant chitinase (RmChi44) was purified to homogeneity and biochemically characterized. The molecular mass of RmChi44 was estimated to be 44.6 kDa on SDS-PAGE. RmChi44 displayed an acidic pH optimum of 4.5 and was stable within pH 4.5-9.0. The optimal temperature of RmChi44 was found to be 50 °C. The Km values of RmChi44 for colloidal chitin and glycol chitin were 4.02 and 1.55 mg/mL, respectively. RmChi44 hydrolyzed colloidal chitin to yield mainly N-acetyl chitobiose, exhibiting an exotype cleavage pattern. Moreover, the enzyme displayed β-N-acetylglucosaminidase activity, splitting N-acetyl COSs with degree of polymerization (DP) 2-5 into their monomer. In addition, RmChi44 showed antifungal activity against some phytopathogenic fungi. This is the first report on an exochitinase showing β-N-acetylglucosaminidase activity and antifungal activity from Rhizomucor species.

Purification and characterization of a novel chitinase from Trichosanthes dioica seed with antifungal activity

Chitinases are a group of enzymes that show differences in their molecular structure, substrate specificity, and catalytic mechanism and widely found in organisms like bacteria, yeasts, fungi, arthropods actinomycetes, plants and humans. A novel chitinase enzyme (designated as TDSC) was purified from Trichosanthes dioica seed with a molecular mass of 39±1 kDa in the presence and absence of β-mercaptoethanol. The enzyme was a glycoprotein in nature containing 8% neutral sugar. The N-terminal sequence was determined to be EINGGGA which did not match with other proteins. Amino acid analysis performed by LC-MS revealed that the protein was rich in leucine. The enzyme was stable at a wide range of pH (5.0-11.0) and temperature (30-90 °C). Chitinase activity was little bit inhibited in the presence of chelating agent EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraaceticacid), urea and Ca(2+). A strong fluorescence quenching effect was found when dithiothreitol and sodium dodecyl sulfate were added to the enzyme. TDSC showed antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger and Trichoderma sp. as tested by MTT assay and disc diffusion method.

Genome-Wide Transcriptome Analysis of Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) Identifies Candidate Gene Signatures in Response to Aflatoxin Producing Fungus Aspergillus flavus

Aflatoxins are toxic and potent carcinogenic metabolites produced from the fungi Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. Aflatoxins can contaminate cottonseed under conducive preharvest and postharvest conditions. United States federal regulations restrict the use of aflatoxin contaminated cottonseed at >20 ppb for animal feed. Several strategies have been proposed for controlling aflatoxin contamination, and much success has been achieved by the application of an atoxigenic strain of A. flavus in cotton, peanut and maize fields. Development of cultivars resistant to aflatoxin through overexpression of resistance associated genes and/or knocking down aflatoxin biosynthesis of A. flavus will be an effective strategy for controlling aflatoxin contamination in cotton. In this study, genome-wide transcriptome profiling was performed to identify differentially expressed genes in response to infection with both toxigenic and atoxigenic strains of A. flavus on cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) pericarp and seed. The genes involved in antifungal response, oxidative burst, transcription factors, defense signaling pathways and stress response were highly differentially expressed in pericarp and seed tissues in response to A. flavus infection. The cell-wall modifying genes and genes involved in the production of antimicrobial substances were more active in pericarp as compared to seed. The genes involved in auxin and cytokinin signaling were also induced. Most of the genes involved in defense response in cotton were highly induced in pericarp than in seed. The global gene expression analysis in response to fungal invasion in cotton will serve as a source for identifying biomarkers for breeding, potential candidate genes for transgenic manipulation, and will help in understanding complex plant-fungal interaction for future downstream research.

Chitinase III in Euphorbia characias latex: Purification and characterization

This paper deals with the purification of a class III endochitinase from Euphorbia characias latex. Described purification method includes an effective novel separation step using magnetic chitin particles. Application of magnetic affinity adsorbent noticeably simplifies and shortens the purification procedure. This step and the subsequently DEAE-cellulose chromatography enable to obtain the chitinase in homogeneous form. One protein band is present on PAGE in non-denaturing conditions and SDS-PAGE profile reveals a unique protein band of 36.5 ± 2 kDa. The optimal chitinase activity is observed at 50 °C, pH 5.0. E. characias latex chitinase is able to hydrolyze colloidal chitin giving, as reaction products, N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, chitobiose and chitotriose. Moreover, we observed that calcium and magnesium ions enhance chitinase activity. Finally, we cloned the cDNA encoding the E. characias latex chitinase. The partial cDNA nucleotide sequence contains 762 bp, and the deduced amino acid sequence (254 amino acids) is homologous to the sequence of several plant class III endochitinases.

Increased Levels of Antinutritional and/or Defense Proteins Reduced the Protein Quality of a Disease-Resistant Soybean Cultivar

The biochemical and nutritional attributes of two soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) cultivars, one susceptible (Seridó) and the other resistant (Seridó-RCH) to stem canker, were examined to assess whether the resistance to pathogens was related to levels of antinutritional and/or defense proteins in the plant and subsequently affected the nutritional quality. Lectin, urease, trypsin inhibitor, peroxidase and chitinase activities were higher in the resistant cultivar. Growing rats were fed with isocaloric and isoproteic diets prepared with defatted raw soybean meals. Those on the Seridó-RCH diet showed the worst performance in terms of protein quality indicators. Based on regression analysis, lectin, trypsin inhibitor, peroxidase and chitinase appear to be involved in the resistance trait but also in the poorer nutritional quality of Seridó-RCH. Thus, the development of cultivars for disease resistance may lead to higher concentrations of antinutritional compounds, affecting the quality of soybean seeds. Further research that includes the assessment of more cultivars/genotypes is needed.

Chitinases: in agriculture and human healthcare

Biological control of phytopathogenic fungi and insects continues to inspire the research and development of environmentally friendly bioactive alternatives. Potentially lytic enzymes, chitinases can act as a biocontrol agent against agriculturally important fungi and insects. The cell wall in fungi and protective covers, i.e. cuticle in insects shares a key structural polymer, chitin, a β-1,4-linked N-acetylglucosamine polymer. Therefore, it is advantageous to develop a common biocontrol agent against both of these groups. As chitin is absent in plants and mammals, targeting its metabolism will signify an eco-friendly strategy for the control of agriculturally important fungi and insects but is innocuous to mammals, plants, beneficial insects and other organisms. In addition, development of chitinase transgenic plant varieties probably holds the most promising method for augmenting agricultural crop protection and productivity, when properly integrated into traditional systems. Recently, human proteins with chitinase activity and chitinase-like proteins were identified and established as biomarkers for human diseases. This review covers the recent advances of chitinases as a biocontrol agent and its various applications including preparation of medically important chitooligosaccharides, bioconversion of chitin as well as in implementing chitinases as diagnostic and prognostic markers for numerous diseases and the prospect of their future utilization.