Nanoencapsulation of date palm pit extract in whey protein particles generated via desolvation method

Evaluation of whey protein coating containing nanoliposome dill (Anethum graveolens L.) essential oil on microbial, physicochemical and sensory changes of rainbow trout fish

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of whey coating containing dill (Anethum graveolens L.) essential oil nanoliposome on the physicochemical, microbiological and sensory characteristics of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Treatments comprise: sample without coating (control), coating containing whey, coating containing whey with essential oil (whey-EO) and coating containing whey with nano EO (whey-NEO). The particle size, zeta potential, polydispersity index and the encapsulation efficiency were ranged from 142 to 159 nm, -16.3 to -11.7 mV, 0.79 to 0.88 Mw/Mn and 45.85-70.01 %, respectively. Microbial analysis, after 21 days, the maximum and minimum of TVC (total viable counts), TPC (total psychrophilic counts) and LAB (lactic acid bacteria) counts were related to control (8.16 for TVC, 8.46 for TPC and 7.7 log CFU/g for LAB) and whey + NEO (7 for TVC, 7.3 for TPC and 6.16 log CFU/g for LAB), respectively. Also, results of pH, peroxide value (PV), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and total volatile base-nitrogen (TVB-N) after 21 days were ranged from 6.3 (whey-NEO) to 7.5 (control), from 11.5(whey-NEO) to 20.9 mEq/Kg (control), from 5.23(whey-NEO) to 8.34 mg MDA/kg (control) and from 22.5 (whey-NEO) to 37 mg N/100 g (control), respectively. Finally, in all sensory evaluation items (texture, off-odor, discoloration and red color), the best result after 21 days was related to whey-NEO (score = 1). Consequently, the edible coating comprising whey and nanoliposome of EO could be effective to the maintenance of fish's microbiological, physicochemical, and sensory properties.

Encapsulation of Orange Peel Oil in Biopolymeric Nanocomposites to Control Its Release under Different Conditions

Orange peel oil (OPO) is one of the most common flavorings used in the food industry, but it is volatile under environmental conditions (the presence of light, oxygen, humidity, and high temperatures). Encapsulation by biopolymer nanocomposites is a suitable and novel strategy to improve the bioavailability and stability of OPO and its controlled release. In this study, we investigated the release profile of OPO from freeze-dried optimized nanocomposite powders as a function of pH (3, 7, 11) and temperature (30, 60, and 90 °C), and within a simulated salivary system. Finally, its release kinetics modelling was performed using experimental models. The encapsulation efficiency of OPO within the powders, along with the morphology and size of the particles, were also evaluated by an atomic force microscopy (AFM) analysis. The results showed that the encapsulation efficiency was in the range of 70-88%, and the nanoscale size of the particles was confirmed by AFM. The release profile showed that the lowest and the highest release rates were observed at the temperatures of 30 and 90 °C and in the pH values of 3 and 11, respectively, for all three samples. The Higuchi model provided the best model fitting of the experimental data for the OPO release of all the samples. In general, the OPO encapsulates prepared in this study showed promising characteristics for food flavoring applications. These results suggest that the encapsulation of OPO may be useful for controlling its flavor release under different conditions and during cooking.

Advances in preparation, interaction and stimulus responsiveness of protein-based nanodelivery systems

The improved understanding of the connection between diet and health has led to growing interest in the development of functional foods designed to improve health and wellbeing. Many of the potentially health-promoting bioactive ingredients that food manufacturers would like to incorporate into these products are difficult to utilize because of their chemical instability, poor solubility, or low bioavailability. For this reason, nano-based delivery systems are being developed to overcome these problems. Food proteins possess many functional attributes that make them suitable for formulating various kinds of nanocarriers, including their surface activity, water binding, structuring, emulsification, gelation, and foaming, as well as their nutritional aspects. Proteins-based nanocarriers are therefore useful for introducing bioactive ingredients into functional foods, especially for their targeted delivery in specific applications.This review focusses on the preparation, properties, and applications of protein-based nanocarriers, such as nanoparticles, micelles, nanocages, nanoemulsions, and nanogels. In particular, we focus on the development and application of stimulus-responsive protein-based nanocarriers, which can be used to release bioactive ingredients in response to specific environmental triggers. Finally, we discuss the potential and future challenges in the design and application of these protein-based nanocarriers in the food industry.

Utilization of diverse protein sources for the development of protein-based nanostructures as bioactive carrier systems: A review of recent research findings (2010-2021)

Consumer awareness of the relationship between health and nutrition has caused a substantial increase in the demand for nutraceuticals and functional foods containing bioactive compounds (BACs) with potential health benefits. However, the direct incorporation of many BACs into commercial food and beverage products is challenging because of their poor matrix compatibility, chemical instability, low bioavailability, or adverse impact on food quality. Advanced encapsulation technologies are therefore being employed to overcome these problems. In this article, we focus on the utilization of plant and animal derived proteins to fabricate micro and nano-particles that can be used for the oral delivery of BACs such as omega-3 oils, vitamins and nutraceuticals. This review comprehensively discusses different methods being implemented for fabrications of protein-based delivery vehicles, types of proteins used, and their compatibility for the purpose. Finally, some of the challenges and limitations of different protein matrices for encapsulation of BACs are deliberated upon. Various approaches have been developed for the fabrication of protein-based microparticles and nanoparticles, including injection-gelation, controlled denaturation, and antisolvent precipitation methods. These methods can be used to construct particle-based delivery systems with different compositions, sizes, surface hydrophobicity, and electrical characteristics, thereby enabling them to be used in a wide range of applications.

Fabrication and characterization of sunflower protein isolate nanoparticles, and their potential for encapsulation and sustainable release of curcumin

In this research, first, the effects of two desolvating agents (ethanol and methanol) at three temperature values (4, 25, and 50 °C) on the fabrication of sunflower protein isolate (SnPI) nanoparticles were studied using a desolvation method. Second, the ability of the nanoparticles to encapsulate curcumin was investigated. Results showed that ethanol led to smaller nanoparticles compared to methanol as the desolvating agent at 4 and 50 °C. However, at 25 °C, ethanol formed the most uniform nanoparticles with the lowest polydispersity index (0.188 ± 0.091) and particle size of 174.64 ± 30.61 nm. The encapsulation efficiency was in the range of 39.1 to 95.4% according to the fabrication condition and curcumin-to-protein mass ratio. A biphasic trend of curcumin release from nanoparticles was observed; in which, over 50% of curcumin was released from the curcumin-loaded nanoparticles in the first 2 h, which is attributed to the burst effect of the protein matrix.

Modification and improvement of biodegradable packaging films by cold plasma; a critical review

Cold plasma is one of the techniques used in recent years to improve the functionality and interfacial attributes of biopolymers. Employing cold plasma for the treatment and modification of biopolymers possesses several advantages including its biocompatibility, elimination of toxic solvents usage, treatment consistency, and appropriateness for heat-sensitive ingredients. Most studies have presented the efficacious use of cold plasma treatment in improving structural, mechanical and thermal properties of film composites. In addition, cold plasma improves the film surface characteristics, particularly in protein-based films, through bringing up the polar functional groups onto the bio-composite surface, consequently increasing roughness, improving printability, increasing adhesion, and reducing contact angle; while it is not effective in the improvement of water vapor permeability of edible films. Cold plasma-treated edible packaging films experienced significant improvement where exposed to microbial contaminations, mainly due to the non-thermal nature of cold plasma technology leading to the protection of antimicrobial potency of bioactive compounds and antimicrobial constitutes. Therefore, it can be concluded that cold plasma treatment is an innovative strategy to strengthen the edible film characteristics as a promising alternative to the currently used chemical and physical modification approaches.

Nanoencapsulation of anthocyanins-loaded β-lactoglobulin nanoparticles: Characterization, stability, and bioavailability in vitro

This work aims to investigate the effect of desolvation on the stability and bioavailability of nanoparticles of β-lactoglobulin (β-Lg) and anthocyanins (AC) extracted from red raspberry pomace. Interactions between the substrates were also studied using multispectral approaches. β-Lg-nanoparticles were fabricated via heat treatment at 85 °C for 30 min before initiating the desolvation method at pH 7. This method generated monodisperse particles, nano-scale size of β-Lg, and AC-β-Lg ranged from 129.13 to 351.85 nm with square morphology obtained by SEM. The AC extract was encapsulated successfully during desolvation process into β-Lg-nanoparticles with encapsulation efficiency (EE %) of ~77%. Results also showed that AC (from 1 to 13 × 10^-4 M) quenched the fluorescence intensity of de-solvated β-Lg estimated to be 98%, and a binding among them occurred with a K_a-value of 7.59 × 10⁸ M^-1 at 25 °C. Addition of AC also gradually increased the antioxidant activity of β-Lg-nanoparticles with values of 82.51% at the highest AC-concentration (13 × 10^-4 M) loaded on β-Lg-nanoparticles. AC-loaded β-Lg nanoparticles was more stable in mouth (pH 6.8), simulated gastric (SG, pH 2), and simulated intestinal (SI, pH 6.9) by showing high retention rate (%) than that of AC unencapsulated. Overall, de-solvated-β-Lg increased the heat-stability and bioavailability of AC, which could be further utilized in various food and pharmaceutical matrices. These findings recommend that β-Lg nanoparticles could be appropriated as delivery systems for anthocyanins.

The synergistic effect of cell wall extracted from probiotic biomass containing Lactobacillus acidophilus CL1285, L. casei LBC80R, and L. rhamnosus CLR2 on the anticancer activity of cranberry juice-HPLC fractions

Anticancer effects were evaluated on three HPLC fractions obtained from a concentrated cranberry juice and cell wall constituents extracted from a probiotic biomass containing Lactobacillus acidophilus CL1285, Lactobacillus casei LBC80R, and Lactobacillus rhamnosus CLR2. The samples were tested at increasing concentrations for the antiproliferative assay using HT-29 cells' line and for the quinone reductase (QR) assay using Hepa-1c1c7 murine hepatoma cells. Fraction 1 (F1) which is highly concentrated with phenolic acids inhibited the growth of the HT-29 cells' line with IC₅₀ values of 14.80 µg Gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/ml. The fraction 3 (F3) which is highly concentrated in flavonols had potency as QR inducer. Furthermore, the results showed that all cranberry fractions combined with cell wall constituents extracted from the probiotic biomass were more effective in inhibiting the growth of HT-29 as compared to the cranberry fractions tested alone, indicating a possible synergy effect between these bio-functional compounds. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This study strongly evidenced that cranberry juice fractions combined with cell wall constituents extracted from the probiotic biomass can be used as a potent preventive functional compound against colorectal cancer. Therefore, this research proposes a natural dietary compound to prevent mutagenesis and carcinogenesis of colorectal cancer. Furthermore, the industry can formulae products containing probiotic and phenolic compounds as colon cancer cell growth preventive and anticancer products.

Design of new protein drug delivery system (PDDS) with photoactive compounds as a potential application in the treatment of glioblastoma brain cancer

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is an extremely aggressive malignant brain tumor. Despite advances in treatment modalities, it remains largely incurable. This unfavorable prognosis for GBM is at least partly due to the lack of a successful drug delivery system across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The delivery of drugs through nanomedicines combined with less invasive alternative therapies represents an important hope for the future of these incurable brain tumors. Whey protein nanocarriers represent promising strategy for targeted drug delivery to tumor cells by enhancing the drug's bioavailability and distribution, and reducing the body's response towards drug resistance. They have been extensively studied to find new alternatives for capacity to encapsulate different drugs and no need for cross-linkers. In this study, we report for the first time the incorporation and administration of Aluminum phthalocyanine chloride (AlClPc)-loaded whey protein drug delivery system (AlClPc-PDDS) for the treatment of glioblastoma brain cancer. This system was designed and optimized (with the use of the spray drying technique) to obtain the required particle size (in the range of 100 to 300 nm), zeta potential and drug loading. Our results suggest that we have developed a drug delivery system from a low-cost raw material and preparation method that is capable of incorporating hydrophobic drugs which, in combination with irradiation, cause photodamage to neoplasic cells, working as an effective adjuvant treatment for malignant glioma.

Preparation and Characterization of Whey Protein Isolate-DIM Nanoparticles

3,3’-Diindolylmethane (DIM) is a bioactive compound found in Cruciferous vegetables that possesses health benefits such as antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory effects. However, hydrophobicity and photolabile limit its pharmaceutical applications. This study aims to prepare and characterize DIM-encapsulated whey protein isolate (WPI) nanoparticles mixed at different ratios of WPI and DIM using the combined heating–ultrasound method. Results showed that all the samples showed adequate physicochemical characteristics: The mean particle size of the nanoparticles could be controlled down to 96–157 nm depending on the DIM to WPI ratio used in the preparation with a low polydispersity index (<0.5), higher negative values of zeta potential (>−40 mV) as well as with greater encapsulation efficiency (>82%). Flow behavior indices showed the shear-thinning Non-Newtonian or pseudoplastic (n < 1) behavior of the nanoparticles. The thermal properties were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), which showed that DIM was successfully entrapped in WPI nanoparticles. The secondary structure of WPI was changed after DIM incorporation; electrostatic interaction and hydrogen bonding were major facilitating forces for nanoparticles formation, confirmed by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) micrographs showed that all the samples had a smooth surface and spherical structure. The wall material (WPI) and encapsulation method provide effective protection to DIM against UV light and a broad range of physiologically relevant pH’s (2.5, 3.5, 4.5, 5.5, and 7). In conclusion, whey protein isolate (WPI)-based nanoparticles are a promising approach to encapsulate DIM and overcome its physicochemical limitations with improved stability.

Physicochemical and Microstructural Properties of Polymerized Whey Protein Encapsulated 3,3'-Diindolylmethane Nanoparticles

The fat-soluble antioxidant 3,3′-diindolylmethane (DIM), is a natural phytochemical found in Brassica vegetables, such as cabbage, broccoli, and Brussels sprouts. The stability of this compound is a major challenge for its applications. Polymerized whey protein (PWP)-based DIM nanoparticles were prepared at different mass ratios of protein and DIM by mixing PWP and DIM followed by ultrasound treatment for 4 min. All the nanoparticles were studied for particle size, zeta potential, rheological and microstructural properties, and storage stability. The mean particle size of the PWP-based nanoparticles was significantly increased (p < 0.05) by the addition of DIM at different mass ratios, ranging from 241.33 ± 14.82 to 270.57 ± 15.28 nm. Zeta potential values of all nanoparticles were highly negative (greater than ±30 mV), suggesting a stable solution due its electrostatic repulsive forces. All samples exhibited shear thinning behavior (n < 1), fitted with Sisko model (R² > 0.997). Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)spectra revealed that the secondary structure was changed and the absorption intensity for hydrogen bonding got stronger by further incorporating DIM into PWP. Transmission electronic microscopy (TEM) images showed spherical and smooth surface shape of the PWP-based nanoparticles. DIM encapsulated by PWP showed enhanced stability at 4, 37 and 55 °C for 15 days evidenced by changes in mean particle size and color (a*-value and b*-value) compared with control (DIM only). In conclusion, the polymerized whey protein based 3,3′-diindolylmethane nanoparticles are stable and the encapsulation may protect the core material from oxidation.

Modification of molecular conformation of spray-dried whey protein microparticles improving digestibility and release characteristics

This study reports on the preparation of riboflavin-loaded whey protein isolate (WPI) microparticles, using desolvation and then spray drying. Ethanol desolvation led to the exposure of embedded hydrophobic amino acids of WPI to riboflavin, facilitating the formation of riboflavin-WPI complexes. The extent of desolvation and cross-linking influenced the morphology of the spray-dried microparticles, while the moisture content of microparticles decreased with desolvation and increased with crosslinking. The modification of WPI conformation upon desolvation could be retained in the dry state via spray drying. The gastric resistance, release site and release characteristics of microparticles were readily adjusted by varying the ethanol and calcium ion contents from 0 to 50% v/v and from 0 to 2 mM, respectively. The sample prepared from 30% v/v ethanol without calcium crosslinking displayed rapid peptic digestion in less than 30 min. The samples from 30% v/v ethanol at 1 and 2 mM Ca²⁺ exhibited excellent gastric resistance and intestinal release.

The stability and bioaccessibility of fucoxanthin in spray-dried microcapsules based on various biopolymers

Fucoxanthin is a major marine carotenoid with many biological activities. It is well known that fucoxanthin is unstable to heat and acid due to its polyunsaturated structure. Another defect of fucoxanthin is the low bioavailability and all these drawbacks make it limited in the food industry. In order to improve its stability and intestinal absorption, fucoxanthin was encapsulated with biopolymers by spray drying in this study. All the microspheres we prepared had a spherical shape with encapsulation efficiencies (EE) ranging from 86.48% to 97.06%. A heat stability test showed that maltodextrin (MD), gum arabic (GA) and whey protein isolate (WPI) improved the thermal stability of fucoxanthin. The degradation kinetics of the loaded fucoxanthin encapsulated with biopolymers also indicated that GA and MD had a better protective effect on fucoxanthin. The encapsulated fucoxanthin degradation rate within MD, GA, WPI and gelatin (GEL) followed second-order kinetics and their half-life (t 1/2) was 92.6 d, 99.8 d, 50.9 d and 69.3 d, respectively. The simulated digestion test in vitro suggested that MD, GA and WPI effectively protected fucoxanthin in the gastric acid environment, meanwhile increasing the release rate of fucoxanthin in the intestinal tract.

Protein-Based Delivery Systems for the Nanoencapsulation of Food Ingredients

Many proteins possess functional attributes that make them suitable for the encapsulation of bioactive agents, such as nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals. This article reviews the state of the art of protein-based nanoencapsulation approaches. The physicochemical principles underlying the major techniques for the fabrication of nanoparticles, nanogels, and nanofibers from animal, botanical, and recombinant proteins are described. Protein modification approaches that can be used to extend their functionality in these nanocarrier systems are also described, including chemical, physical, and enzymatic treatments. The encapsulation, retention, protection, and release of bioactive agents in different protein-based nanocarriers are discussed. Finally, some of the major challenges in the design and fabrication of protein-based delivery systems are highlighted.

One-Pot Procedure for Recovery of Gallic Acid from Wastewater and Encapsulation within Protein Particles

A whey protein isolate solution was heat-denatured and treated with the enzyme transglutaminase, which cross-linked ≈26% of the amino groups and increased the magnitude of the ζ-potential value. The protein solution was microemulsified, and then the resulting water-in-oil microemulsion was dispersed within a gallic acid-rich model wastewater. Gallic acid extraction by the outlined microemulsion liquid membrane (MLM) from the exterior aqueous phase (wastewater) and accumulation within the internal aqueous nanodroplets induced protein cold-set gelation and resulted in the formation of gallic acid-enveloping nanoparticles. Measurements with a strain-controlled rheometer indicated a progressive increase in the MLM viscosity during gallic acid recovery corresponding to particle formation. The mean hydrodynamic size of the nanoparticles made from the heat-denatured and preheated enzymatically cross-linked proteins was 137 and 122 nm, respectively. The enzymatic cross-linking of whey proteins led to a higher gallic acid recovery yield and increased the glass transition enthalpy and temperature. A similar impact on glass transition indices was observed by the gallic acid-induced nanoparticulation of proteins. Scanning electron microscopy showed the existence of numerous jammed/fused nanoparticles. It was suggested on the basis of the results of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy that the in situ nanoparticulation of proteins shifted the C-N stretching and C-H bending peaks to higher wavenumbers. X-ray diffraction results proposed a decreased β-sheet content for proteins because of the acid-induced particulation. The nanoparticles made from the enzymatically cross-linked protein were more stable against the in vitro gastrointestinal digestion and retained almost 19% of the entrapped gallic acid after 300 min sequential gastric and intestinal digestions.