Structure and cardioprotective activities of polar lipids of olive pomace, olive pomace-enriched fish feed and olive pomace fed gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata)

Unlocking the potential of olive residues for functional purposes: update on human intervention trials with health and cosmetic products

Olive mill waste (OMW) is a promising source of valuable compounds such as polyphenols, terpenes, sterols, and other bioactive compounds, which are of interest to the pharmaceuticals and cosmeceutical industries. This review examines the potential of OMW extracts for health and beauty applications based on evidence reports from human clinical trials. The results achieved to date indicate health-enhancing properties, but little is known about the underlying mechanisms of action, dose-response relationships, and long-term impacts. Therefore, while olive by-products, extracted using eco-friendly methods, present opportunities for the development of high-value health and cosmetic products, further studies are necessary to determine the full range of their effects and establish specific therapeutic strategies. © 2024 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Dietary Phospholipids Alleviate Diet-Induced Obesity in Mice: Which Fatty Acids and Which Polar Head

The weight loss effects of dietary phospholipids have been extensively studied. However, little attention has been paid to the influence of phospholipids (PLs) with different fatty acids and polar headgroups on the development of obesity. High-fat-diet-fed mice were administrated with different kinds of PLs (2%, w/w) with specific fatty acids and headgroups, including EPA-enriched phosphatidylcholine/phosphatidylethanolamine/phosphatidylserine (EPA-PC/PE/PS), DHA-PC/PE/PS, Egg-PC/PE/PS, and Soy-PC/PE/PS for eight weeks. Body weight, white adipose tissue weight, and the levels of serum lipid and inflammatory markers were measured. The expression of genes related to lipid metabolism in the liver were determined. The results showed that PLs decreased body weight, fat storage, and circulating lipid levels, and EPA-PLs had the best efficiency. Serum TNF-α, MCP-1 levels were significantly reduced via treatment with DHA-PLs and PS groups. Mechanistic investigation revealed that PLs, especially EPA-PLs and PSs, reduced fat accumulation through enhancing the expression of genes involved in fatty acid β-oxidation (Cpt1a, Cpt2, Cd36, and Acaa1a) and downregulating lipogenesis gene (Srebp1c, Scd1, Fas, and Acc) expression. These data suggest that EPA-PS exhibits the best effects among other PLs in terms of ameliorating obesity, which might be attributed to the fatty acid composition of phospholipids, as well as their headgroup.

Cardiovascular Diseases and Marine Oils: A Focus on Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Polar Lipids

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) remain the leading cause of death across the globe, hence, establishing strategies to counteract CVD are imperative to reduce mortality and the burden on health systems. Dietary modification is an effective primary prevention strategy against CVD. Research regarding dietary supplementation has become increasingly popular. This review focuses on the current in vivo, in vitro, and epidemiological studies associated with that of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) and polar lipids (PLs) and how they play a role against CVD. Furthermore, this review focuses on the results of several major clinical trials examining n-3 PUFAs regarding both primary and secondary prevention of CVD. Notably, we place a lens on the REDUCE-IT and STRENGTH trials. Finally, supplementation of PLs has recently been suggested as a potential alternative avenue for the reduction of CVD incidence versus neutral forms of n-3 PUFAs. However, the clinical evidence for this argument is currently rather limited. Therefore, we draw on the current literature to suggest future clinical trials for PL supplementation. We conclude that despite conflicting evidence, future human trials must be completed to confirm whether PL supplementation may be more effective than n-3 PUFA supplementation to reduce cardiovascular risk.

Lipidomics of Sannen goat milk subjected to pasteurization and spray drying based on LC-ESI-MS/MS

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of pasteurization and spray drying on goat milk lipids by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) and multiple variable statistics. A total of 1061 lipids assigned to 29 subclasses in raw and thermal-treated groups were identified. One hundred and 85 different lipids (DLs) (VIP ≥ 1 and |Log₂FC| ≥ 1.0) were selected from pairwise comparisons of goat milk by different treatments. Glycerophospholipids were the most affected subclasses by thermal processes, especially by spray drying. Five potential lipid markers [(DG (16:1_18:0), TG (18:1_22:1_18:2), Cer (t17:2/31:0), LPC (0:0/20:0), and LPS (20:0/0:0] were used to distinguish different treated goat milk. Moreover, glycerophospholipid metabolism was the primary pathway of DLs. These results would provide more details of lipid profiles in thermally treated (pasteurization and spray drying) goat milk.

Effect of homogenization on lipid profiling in Saanen goat milk based on UHPLC-QTOF-MS lipidomics

Homogenization might change the lipid composition of goat milk. This study aimed to investigate the lipid profiles, and identify different lipids (DLs) of raw goat milk (RGM) and homogenized goat milk (HGM) using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) and multivariate statistics. Fifty-six DLs (VIP ≥ 1 and |Log₂FC| ≥ 1.0) were identified from 1057 lipids assigned to 29 subclasses in RGM and HGM. Notably, there were many phosphatidylcholines (PCs) decreased after homogenization, while lysophosphatidylcholines (LPCs) were opposite. Our results provide more details on the impact of homogenization on goat milk lipids.

Consumption of Farmed Fish, Fed with an Olive-Pomace Enriched Diet, and Its Effect on the Inflammatory, Redox, and Platelet-Activating Factor Enzyme Profile of Apparently Healthy Adults: A Double-Blind Randomized Crossover Trial

A fish-rich diet has a beneficial effect on cardiovascular health. The platelet activating factor (PAF) is involved in the development of atherosclerosis, and in vitro results support the regulating action of bioactive nutrients on PAF metabolism. The purpose of this study is to examine whether the consumption of farmed fish fed with an olive-pomace enriched diet (EF) affects PAF metabolism and the markers of inflammation and oxidative stress compared to the consumption of conventionally fed farmed fish (CF). Thirty apparently healthy adults completed a randomized double-blind crossover trial, during which they consumed both CF and EF twice a week for 8 weeks with a six-week washout period in between. The activities of PAF acetylhydrolase (PAF-AH), lysoPAF acetyltransferase (lysoPAF-AT), DTT-insensitive CDP-choline: 1-alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol-choline-phosphotransferase (PAF-CPT) in leukocytes, and lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A₂ (LpPLA₂) in serum were determined. The quantities of interleukin-6 (IL-6), high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), oxidized LDL (ox-LDL), thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), as well as the serum oxidation, were also determined. Both types of fish exerted similar effects as there were no statistically significant differences between the two interventions except for an elevated PAF-CPT and reduced arachidonic acid (AA) in the red blood cell (RBC) membrane lipids after the EF intake.

Higher Yield and Polyphenol Content in Olive Pomace Extracts Using 2-Methyloxolane as Bio-Based Solvent

Despite its severe toxicity and negative environmental impact, hexane remain the solvent of choice for the extraction of vegetable oils. This is in contrast with the constantly growing demand for sustainable and green extraction processes. In recent years a variety of alternatives to hexane have been reported, among them 2-methyloxolane (2-MeOx), which has emerged as a promising bio-based alternative. This study evaluates the possibility of replacing hexane, in the extraction of olive pomace (OP), with 2-MeOx, both dry and saturated with water (4.5%), the latter of which is called 2-MeOx 95.5%. The three solvents have been compared in terms of extraction yield and quality, as well as the lipid and polyphenol profiles of the extracts. The work concluded that both dry 2-MeOx and 2-MeOx 95.5% can replace hexane in OP extraction, resulting in higher yields and extracts richer in phenolic compounds. This study should open the road to further semi-industrial scale investigations toward more sustainable production processes.

Olive Pomace and Pâté Olive Cake as Suitable Ingredients for Food and Feed

Olive oil extraction generates several by-products that represent an environmental issue, mainly for Mediterranean countries where olive oil is mostly produced. These by-products represent an ecological issue for their phenolic components, such as oleuropein, hydroxytyrosol, and tyrosol. However, olive oil by-products can be treated and properly exploited in different fields for their health-promoting properties, and they represent great potential for the food and beverage, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries. Furthermore, recovery and treatment processes can contribute to efficient waste management, which can enhance the sustainability of the olive oil industry, and in turn, lead to relevant economic benefits. The solid waste, i.e., olive pomace, could be considered to be a suitable matrix or primary resource of molecules with high added value due to their high phenolic content. Olive pomace, at different moisture contents, is the main by-product obtained from two- or three-phase extraction systems. A commonly used centrifugal extraction system, i.e., a multiphase decanter (DMF), does not require the addition of water and can generate a new by-product called pâté or olive pomace cake, consisting of moist pulp that is rich in phenols, in particular, secoiridoids, without any trace of kernel. Although several reviews have been published on olive wastes, only a few reviews have specifically focused on the solid by-products. Therefore, the aim of the present review is to provide a comprehensive overview on the current valorization of the main solid olive oil by-products, in particular, olive pomace or pâté olive cake, highlighting their use in different fields, including human nutrition.

Effect of Differently Fed Farmed Gilthead Sea Bream Consumption on Platelet Aggregation and Circulating Haemostatic Markers among Apparently Healthy Adults: A Double-Blind Randomized Crossover Trial

Fish consumption beneficially affects coagulation markers. Few dietary intervention studies have investigated differently fed farmed fish against these cardio-metabolic risk factors in humans. This double-blind randomized crossover trial evaluated differently fed farmed gilthead sea bream consumption against platelet aggregation and circulating haemostatic markers among apparently healthy adults. Subjects aged 30-65 years, with a body mass index 24.0-31.0 kg/m², consuming less than 150 g cooked fish per week, were recruited in Attica, Greece. Participants were randomized (n = 38, 1:1) to one of two sequences; consumption of fish fed with fish oil diet (conventional fish, CF)/fish fed with olive pomace-enriched diet (enriched fish, EF) versus EF/CF. The primary outcomes were ex vivo human platelet aggregation and circulating plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) and P-selectin (sP-selectin) concentrations. EF consumption had no significant effect on platelet sensitivity or haemostatic markers compared to CF. Platelet sensitivity to platelet-activating factor (PAF) decreased after CF consumption during the second period (p < 0.01). Plasma PAI-1 and sP-selectin concentrations increased after CF consumption during both periods (p < 0.01 for both). Based on current findings, consumption of enriched farmed gilthead sea bream had no greater effect on coagulation markers in adults compared to the conventionally fed fish.

Functional compounds from olive pomace to obtain high-added value foods - a review

Olive pomace, the solid by-product from virgin olive oil extraction, constitutes a remarkable source of functional compounds and has been exploited by several authors to formulate high value-added foods and, consequently, to foster the sustainability of the olive-oil chain. In this framework, the aim of the present review was to summarize the results on the application of functional compounds from olive pomace in food products. Phenolic-rich extracts from olive pomace were added to vegetable oils, fish burgers, fermented milk, and in the edible coating of fruit, to take advantage of their antioxidant and antimicrobial effects. Olive pomace was also used directly in the formulation of pasta and baked goods, by exploiting polyunsaturated fatty acids, phenolic compounds, and dietary fiber to obtain high value-added healthy foods and / or to extend their shelf-life. With the same scope, olive pomace was also added to animal feeds, providing healthy, improved animal products. Different authors used olive pomace to produce biodegradable materials and / or active packaging able to increase the content of bioactive compounds and the oxidative stability of foods. Overall, the results highlighted, in most cases, the effectiveness of the addition of olive pomace-derived functional compounds in improving nutritional value, quality, and / or the shelf-life of foods. However, the direct addition of olive pomace was found to be more challenging, especially due to alterations in the sensory and textural features of food. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Characterization and comparison of lipids in bovine colostrum and mature milk based on UHPLC-QTOF-MS lipidomics

Lipids in bovine milk have several biological activities, with implications for human health and the physical functionality of foods. However, alterations in the lipid profile of bovine milk during lactation are not well-studied. This study aimed to identify differences in lipids between bovine colostrum and mature milk, using a lipidomics approach. Using an advanced mass spectrometry-based quantitative lipidomics approach, 335 lipids assigned to 13 subclasses were characterized in bovine colostrum (BC) and mature milk (BM). In total, 63 significantly differential lipids (SDLs) were identified. Among the 63 SDLs, the levels of 21 lipids were significantly lower in BM than in BC, including 5 glycerophosphatidylethanolamines (PEs), 1 glycerophosphatidylglycerol (PG), and 15 triacylglycerols (TGs). The levels of the remaining 42 lipids increased in BM, including 1 cardiolipin (CL), 9 diacylglycerols (DGs), 9 dihexosylceramides (Hex2Cers), 3 hexosylceramides (HexCers), 3 glycerophosphatidic acids (PAs), 2 glycerophosphatidylcholines (PCs), 12 PEs, and 3 TGs. Furthermore, the correlations and related metabolic pathways of these 63 SDLs were analyzed to explore the mechanisms that alter bovine milk lipids during lactation. The seven most relevant pathways identified herein, ranked in accordance with their degree of influence on lactation, were glycerophospholipid metabolism, sphingolipid metabolism, glycerolipid metabolism, glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchor biosynthesis, linoleic acid metabolism, alpha-linolenic acid metabolism, and arachidonic acid metabolism. Our results provide essential insights into mechanisms underlying alterations in bovine milk lipids during different lactation periods, along with practical information of specific nutrition and quality assessments for the dairy industry.

Yoghurt fermentation alters the composition and antiplatelet properties of milk polar lipids

Dairy polar lipids (PL) seem to exhibit antiplatelet effects. However, it is not known what molecular species may be responsible. In this study, we confirmed using C30 reversed-phase (C30RP) ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) coupled to high resolution accurate mass tandem mass spectrometry (HRAM-MS/MS) that fermentation of yoghurts from ovine milk using specific starter cultures altered the PL composition. These lipid alterations occurred concomitant with increased antithrombotic properties of the yoghurts PL fractions against platelet-activating factor (PAF) and thrombin-induced platelet aggregation. Specifically, elevation in phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), sphingomyelin (SM), phosphatidylcholine (PC) and their molecular species were observed following yoghurt fermentation. Furthermore, PC(18:0/18:1), PE(18:1/18:2), SM(d18:0/22:0) and several other molecular species were significantly inversely correlated with the inhibition of PAF and thrombin. These molecular species were abundant in the most bioactive yoghurts fermented by S. thermophilus and L. acidophilus, which suggest that fermentation by these microorganisms increases the antithrombotic properties of ovine milk PL.

Total, Neutral, and Polar Lipids of Brewing Ingredients, By-Products and Beer: Evaluation of Antithrombotic Activities

The in vitro antithrombotic properties of polar lipid constituents of malted grain (MG), pelleted hops (PH), brewer’s spent grain (BSG), spent hops (SH), wort, and bottled beer from the same production line were assessed in human platelets. The total lipids (TL) were extracted according to the Bligh and Dyer method and further separated into the total neutral lipids (TNL) and total polar lipids (TPL) extracts by counter-current distribution. The TL, TNL, and TPL extracts of all samples were assessed for their ability to inhibit platelet-activating factor (PAF) and thrombin-induced human platelet aggregation. The raw materials, by-products, wort, and beer lipid extracts all exhibited antithrombotic properties against PAF and thrombin. However, the beer TPL exhibited the lowest IC₅₀ values against PAF-induced (7.8 ± 3.9 µg) and thrombin-induced (4.3 ± 3.0 µg) platelet aggregation indicating that these polar lipids were the most antithrombotic. The lipid extracts tended to be more bioactive against the thrombin pathway. The fatty acid content of all the TPL extracts were assessed using GC-MS. The fatty acid composition of the most bioactive TPL extracts, the wort and the beer, shared similar fatty acid profiles. Indeed, it was noted that fermentation seems to play a role in increasing the antithrombotic properties of polar lipids against PAF and thrombin by moderately altering the polar lipid fatty acid composition. Furthermore, the use of brewing by-products as a source of functional cardioprotective lipids warrants further investigation and valorisation.

The Potential Role of Dietary Platelet-Activating Factor Inhibitors in Cancer Prevention and Treatment

Cancer is the second leading cause of mortality worldwide. The role of unresolved inflammation in cancer progression and metastasis is well established. Platelet-activating factor (PAF) is a key proinflammatory mediator in the initiation and progression of cancer. Evidence suggests that PAF is integral to suppression of the immune system and promotion of metastasis and tumor growth by altering local angiogenic and cytokine networks. Interactions between PAF and its receptor may have a role in various digestive, skin, and hormone-dependent cancers. Diet plays a critical role in the prevention of cancer and its treatment. Research indicates that the Mediterranean diet may reduce the incidence of several cancers in which dietary PAF inhibitors have a role. Dietary PAF inhibitors such as polar lipids have demonstrated inhibitory effects against the physiological actions of PAF in cancer and other chronic inflammatory conditions in vitro and in vivo. In addition, experimental models of radiotherapy and chemotherapy demonstrate that inhibition of PAF as adjuvant therapy may lead to more favorable outcomes. Although promising, there is limited evidence on the potential benefits of dietary PAF inhibitors on cancer prevention or treatment. Therefore, further extensive research is required to assess the effects of various dietary factors and PAF inhibitors and to elucidate the mechanisms in prevention of cancer progression and metastasis at a molecular level.

Platelet aggregometry assay for evaluating the effects of platelet agonists and antiplatelet compounds on platelet function in vitro

Platelet aggregometry assays are generally used for the analysis of platelet function but can also be adapted for further research and therapy focused applications. This method describes the procedures for the preparation of human platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and platelet-poor plasma (PPP) for the assessment of human platelet aggregation induced by agonists such as platelet-activating factor (PAF), thrombin, collagen, adenosine diphosphate (ADP), arachidonic acid, etc. •This method can be applied in vitro to evaluate the aggregatory effects of these agonists and to assess the antiaggregatory effects of several bioactive antiplatelet agents (compounds of natural or pharmacological origin) in human PRP.•This versatile method can be used in both basic and clinical research for the assessment of platelet aggregation (a major cardiovascular risk factor), platelet agonists, and inhibitors, in physiological or pathological conditions.•This method can be adapted to assess platelet activity in postprandial and intervention studies ex vivo.

In vitro Anti-atherogenic Properties of N-Heterocyclic Carbene Aurate(I) Compounds

The anti-atherogenic (anti-inflammatory) properties of various aurate(I) salts, of the general formula [NHC⋅H][AuCl₂ ] (NHC=N-heterocyclic carbene) were investigated. The aurates were easily synthesized and obtained in analytically pure form. In addition, the biological activity of these compounds against atheromatosis via in vitro inhibition of platelet-activating factor (PAF)-induced platelet aggregation was probed. All complexes were found to possess anti-aggregatory properties in vitro with [IPr*⋅H][AuCl₂ ] (6) being the most potent inhibitor of PAF at micromolar concentration. Based on our findings, we conclude that these simply assembled aurates are a very promising class of PAF inhibitors and anti-inflammatory drugs.

Inflammation, not Cholesterol, Is a Cause of Chronic Disease

Since the Seven Countries Study, dietary cholesterol and the levels of serum cholesterol in relation to the development of chronic diseases have been somewhat demonised. However, the principles of the Mediterranean diet and relevant data linked to the examples of people living in the five blue zones demonstrate that the key to longevity and the prevention of chronic disease development is not the reduction of dietary or serum cholesterol but the control of systemic inflammation. In this review, we present all the relevant data that supports the view that it is inflammation induced by several factors, such as platelet-activating factor (PAF), that leads to the onset of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) rather than serum cholesterol. The key to reducing the incidence of CVD is to control the activities of PAF and other inflammatory mediators via diet, exercise, and healthy lifestyle choices. The relevant studies and data supporting these views are discussed in this review.

Phospholipids of Animal and Marine Origin: Structure, Function, and Anti-Inflammatory Properties

In this review paper, the latest literature on the functional properties of phospholipids in relation to inflammation and inflammation-related disorders has been critically appraised and evaluated. The paper is divided into three sections: Section 1 presents an overview of the relationship between structures and biological activities (pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory) of several phospholipids with respect to inflammation. Section 2 and Section 3 are dedicated to the structures, functions, compositions and anti-inflammatory properties of dietary phospholipids from animal and marine sources. Most of the dietary phospholipids of animal origin come from meat, egg and dairy products. To date, there is very limited work published on meat phospholipids, undoubtedly due to the negative perception that meat consumption is an unhealthy option because of its putative associations with several chronic diseases. These assumptions are addressed with respect to the phospholipid composition of meat products. Recent research trends indicate that dairy phospholipids possess anti-inflammatory properties, which has led to an increased interest into their molecular structures and reputed health benefits. Finally, the structural composition of phospholipids of marine origin is discussed. Extensive research has been published in relation to ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and inflammation, however this research has recently come under scrutiny and has proved to be unreliable and controversial in terms of the therapeutic effects of ω-3 PUFA, which are generally in the form of triglycerides and esters. Therefore, this review focuses on recent publications concerning marine phospholipids and their structural composition and related health benefits. Finally, the strong nutritional value of dietary phospholipids are highlighted with respect to marine and animal origin and avenues for future research are discussed.

Replacement of fish oil with soybean oil in diets for juvenile Chinese sucker (Myxocyprinus asiaticus): effects on liver lipid peroxidation and biochemical composition

This study was designed to evaluate the effect of the replacement of fish oil (FO) by soybean oil (SO) on growth performance, liver lipid peroxidation, and biochemical composition in juvenile Chinese sucker, Myxocyprinus asiaticus. Fish (13.7 ± 0.2 g) in triplicate were fed five experimental diets in which 0% (FO as control), 40% (SO40), 60% (SO60), 80% (SO40), and 100% (SO100) FO were replaced by SO. The body weight gain of fish fed SO40, SO60, or SO80 diet was similar to FO group, but diets that have 100% soybean oil as dietary lipid significantly reduced fish growth (P < 0.05). Although the level of SO resulted in increasing crude lipid content of the liver, the level of SO did not significantly alter the hepatosomatic index (HSI). Indicators of peroxidation, such as vitamin E (V_E) and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance (TBARS) contents, were changed as increasing dietary SO. It was shown that the inclusion of SO in the diets increased V_E concentrations, but reduced TBARS in the liver and total cholesterol (T-CHO) in the plasma. Linoleic acid (LA) and linolenic acid (LNA) significantly increased in fish liver fed diets that contained SO, but eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and the ratio n-3/n-6 were significantly reduced by the inclusion of dietary SO (P < 0.05). Our results indicated that the inclusion of SO increased the hepatic V_E content and reduced lipid peroxidation in fish. However, diet containing 100% SO as dietary lipid could reduce growth performance. Thus, we recommended that 40-80% SO can be used as dietary lipid to replace FO for juvenile Chinese sucker.