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Liu M, Li S, Cao S, Liu C, Han Y, Cheng J, Zhang S, Zhao J, Shi Y. Let food be your medicine - dietary fiber. Food Funct 2024; 15:7733-7756. [PMID: 38984439 DOI: 10.1039/d3fo05641d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
Dietary fiber (DF) cannot be digested and absorbed by the digestive tract, nor can it provide the energy needed to be burned for metabolic activities. Therefore, from the 1950s to the 1980s, DF received little attention in nutrition studies. With in-depth research and developments in global nutrition, people have gradually paid attention to the fact that DF occupies an essential position in the structure of nutrition, and it can ensure the healthy development of human beings. As early as 390 B.C., the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates proposed, "Let your food be your medicine, and your medicine be your food". This concept has been more systematically validated in modern scientific research, with numerous epidemiological studies showing that the dietary intake of DF-rich foods such as whole grains, root vegetables, legumes, and fruits has the potential to regulate the balance of the gut microbiota and thereby prevent diseases. However, the crosstalk between different types of DF and the gut microbiota is quite complex, and the effects on the organism vary. In this paper, we discuss research on DF and the gut microbiota and related diseases, aiming to understand the relationship between all three better and provide a reference basis for the risk reduction of related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengqi Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China.
| | - Shouren Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China.
| | - Shixi Cao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China.
| | - Cong Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China.
| | - Yao Han
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China.
| | - Jiawen Cheng
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China.
| | - Shuhang Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China.
| | - Jiangchao Zhao
- Department of Animal Science, Division of Agriculture, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA
| | - Yinghua Shi
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China.
- Henan Key Laboratory of Innovation and Utilization of Grassland Resources, Zhengzhou, China
- Henan Forage Engineering Technology Research Center, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450002, China
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Rahmawati IS, Yuliana ND, Sitanggang AB, Kusumaningrum HD. NMR fingerprinting of depolymerised durian rind pectin and its antibacterial activity. Nat Prod Res 2024:1-7. [PMID: 38684018 DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2024.2347445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
This study investigated the effect of commercial sterilisation treatment (121 °C for 15 min) on durian rind pectin. The change of structure was observed by NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) and the antibacterial activity was assessed by microdilution method to obtain the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value. NMR spectra revealed the rhamnogalacturonan-I and homogalacturonan structure, with lower methyl-ester in sterilised pectin. Native pectin was unable to inhibit Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus at the highest tested concentration (MIC > 25 mg/mL), but sterilised pectin showed inhibitory effect against E.coli (MIC 12.5 mg/mL) and S. aureus (MIC 6.25 mg/mL). Membrane filtration to obtain fraction < 20 kDa enhanced the inhibition against S. aureus further, but not for E.coli. The antibacterial effect was possibly correlated to the decrease of molecular weight (MW) and degree of esterification (DE) of durian rind pectin. E. coli was more resistant to pectin than S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inas Suci Rahmawati
- Food Science Study Program, Graduate School, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia
| | - Nancy Dewi Yuliana
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia
| | - Azis Boing Sitanggang
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia
| | - Harsi Dewantari Kusumaningrum
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia
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Liu X, Li X, Bai Y, Zhou X, Chen L, Qiu C, Lu C, Jin Z, Long J, Xie Z. Natural antimicrobial oligosaccharides in the food industry. Int J Food Microbiol 2023; 386:110021. [PMID: 36462348 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2022.110021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 11/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
An increase in the number of antibiotic resistance genes burdens the environment and affects human health. Additionally, people have developed a cautious attitude toward chemical preservatives. This attitude has promoted the search for new natural antimicrobial substances. Oligosaccharides from various sources have been studied for their antimicrobial and prebiotic effects. Antimicrobial oligosaccharides have several advantages such as being produced from renewable resources and showing antimicrobial properties similar to those of chemical preservatives. Their excellent broad-spectrum antibacterial properties are primarily because of various synergistic effects, including destruction of pathogen cell wall. Additionally, the adhesion of harmful microorganisms and the role of harmful factors may be reduced by oligosaccharides. Some natural oligosaccharides were also shown to stimulate the growth probiotic organisms. Therefore, antimicrobial oligosaccharides have the potential to meet food processing industry requirements in the future. The latest progress in research on the antimicrobial activity of different oligosaccharides is demonstrated in this review. The possible mechanism of action of these antimicrobial oligosaccharides is summarized with respect to their direct and indirect effects. Finally, the extended applications of oligosaccharides from the food source industry to food processing are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuewu Liu
- The State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China; School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Xingfei Li
- The State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China; School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Yuxiang Bai
- The State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China; School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Xing Zhou
- The State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China; School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Long Chen
- The State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China; School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Chao Qiu
- The State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China; School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Cheng Lu
- The State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China; School of Bioengineering, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Zhengyu Jin
- The State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China; School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Jie Long
- The State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China; School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China.
| | - Zhengjun Xie
- The State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China; School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China.
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Apple Pomace Modulates the Microbiota and Increases the Propionate Ratio in an In Vitro Piglet Gastrointestinal Model. FERMENTATION-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/fermentation8080408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Apple pomace (AP) contains biomolecules that induce changes in intestinal fermentation of monogastrics with positive expected health effects. The weaning of piglets can induce economic losses due to intestinal disturbances; new weaning strategies are, thus, welcome. The purpose of this study was to test the effect of AP on fermentation products by using baby-SPIME, an in vitro multi-compartment model dedicated to piglet weaning. A comparison was done on short chain fatty acid (SCFA) ratio and the microbiota induced in bioreactors between a control culture medium vs. an AP culture medium. The results of 2 preliminary runs showed that AP medium increased the molar ratio of propionate (p = 0.021) and decreased the molar ratio of butyrate (p = 0.009). Moreover, this medium increased the cumulative relative abundance of Prevotella sp. and Akkermansia sp. in bioreactors. AP could promote an ecosystem enriched with bacteria known as next-generation probiotics (NGP)—likely influencing the energy metabolism of piglets by their fermentation metabolites. AP could be used as a dietary strategy to influence bacterial changes in the intestine by stimulating the growth of bacteria identified as NGP.
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Trends in "green" and novel methods of pectin modification - A review. Carbohydr Polym 2022; 278:118967. [PMID: 34973782 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2021] [Revised: 11/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Modification of hydrocolloids to alter their functional properties using chemical methods is well documented in the literature. There has been a recent trend of adopting eco-friendly and "green" methods for modification. Pectin, being a very important hydrocolloid finds its use in various food applications due to its gelling, emulsifying, and stabilizing properties. The adoption of various "green" methods can alter the properties of pectin and make it more suitable for incorporation in food products. The novel approaches such as microwave and pulsed electric field can also be utilized for solvent-free modification, making it desirable from the perspective of sustainability, as it reduces the consumption of organic chemicals. Pectic oligosaccharides (POSs) produced via novel approaches are being explored for their biological properties and incorporation in various functional foods. The review can help to set the perspective of potential scale-up and adoption by the food industry for modification of pectin.
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Zhao Y, Li B, Li C, Xu Y, Luo Y, Liang D, Huang C. Comprehensive Review of Polysaccharide-Based Materials in Edible Packaging: A Sustainable Approach. Foods 2021; 10:1845. [PMID: 34441621 PMCID: PMC8392450 DOI: 10.3390/foods10081845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Edible packaging is a sustainable product and technology that uses one kind of "food" (an edible material) to package another kind of food (a packaged product), and organically integrates food with packaging through ingenious material design. Polysaccharides are a reliable source of edible packaging materials with excellent renewable, biodegradable, and biocompatible properties, as well as antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Using polysaccharide-based materials effectively reduces the dependence on petroleum resources, decreases the carbon footprint of the "product-packaging" system, and provides a "zero-emission" scheme. To date, they have been commercialized and developed rapidly in the food (e.g., fruits and vegetables, meat, nuts, confectioneries, and delicatessens, etc.) packaging industry. However, compared with petroleum-based polymers and plastics, polysaccharides still have limitations in film-forming, mechanical, barrier, and protective properties. Therefore, they need to be improved by reasonable material modifications (chemical or physical modification). This article comprehensively reviews recent research advances, hot issues, and trends of polysaccharide-based materials in edible packaging. Emphasis is given to fundamental compositions and properties, functional modifications, food-packaging applications, and safety risk assessment of polysaccharides (including cellulose, hemicellulose, starch, chitosan, and polysaccharide gums). Therefore, to provide a reference for the development of modern edible packaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Zhao
- School of Light Industry & Food Engineering, Guangxi University, 100 Daxue Road, Nanning 530004, China; (Y.Z.); (B.L.); (C.L.); (Y.X.); (Y.L.); (C.H.)
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Clean Pulp & Papermaking and Pollution Control, College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Bo Li
- School of Light Industry & Food Engineering, Guangxi University, 100 Daxue Road, Nanning 530004, China; (Y.Z.); (B.L.); (C.L.); (Y.X.); (Y.L.); (C.H.)
- Key Laboratory of Processing Suitability and Quality Control of the Special Tropical Crops of Hainan Province, Wanning 571533, China
| | - Cuicui Li
- School of Light Industry & Food Engineering, Guangxi University, 100 Daxue Road, Nanning 530004, China; (Y.Z.); (B.L.); (C.L.); (Y.X.); (Y.L.); (C.H.)
| | - Yangfan Xu
- School of Light Industry & Food Engineering, Guangxi University, 100 Daxue Road, Nanning 530004, China; (Y.Z.); (B.L.); (C.L.); (Y.X.); (Y.L.); (C.H.)
| | - Yi Luo
- School of Light Industry & Food Engineering, Guangxi University, 100 Daxue Road, Nanning 530004, China; (Y.Z.); (B.L.); (C.L.); (Y.X.); (Y.L.); (C.H.)
| | - Dongwu Liang
- School of Light Industry & Food Engineering, Guangxi University, 100 Daxue Road, Nanning 530004, China; (Y.Z.); (B.L.); (C.L.); (Y.X.); (Y.L.); (C.H.)
| | - Chongxing Huang
- School of Light Industry & Food Engineering, Guangxi University, 100 Daxue Road, Nanning 530004, China; (Y.Z.); (B.L.); (C.L.); (Y.X.); (Y.L.); (C.H.)
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Clean Pulp & Papermaking and Pollution Control, College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
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Asadpoor M, Ithakisiou GN, Henricks PAJ, Pieters R, Folkerts G, Braber S. Non-Digestible Oligosaccharides and Short Chain Fatty Acids as Therapeutic Targets against Enterotoxin-Producing Bacteria and Their Toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:175. [PMID: 33668708 PMCID: PMC7996226 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13030175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Enterotoxin-producing bacteria (EPB) have developed multiple mechanisms to disrupt gut homeostasis, and provoke various pathologies. A major part of bacterial cytotoxicity is attributed to the secretion of virulence factors, including enterotoxins. Depending on their structure and mode of action, enterotoxins intrude the intestinal epithelium causing long-term consequences such as hemorrhagic colitis. Multiple non-digestible oligosaccharides (NDOs), and short chain fatty acids (SCFA), as their metabolites produced by the gut microbiota, interact with enteropathogens and their toxins, which may result in the inhibition of the bacterial pathogenicity. NDOs characterized by diverse structural characteristics, block the pathogenicity of EPB either directly, by inhibiting bacterial adherence and growth, or biofilm formation or indirectly, by promoting gut microbiota. Apart from these abilities, NDOs and SCFA can interact with enterotoxins and reduce their cytotoxicity. These anti-virulent effects mostly rely on their ability to mimic the structure of toxin receptors and thus inhibiting toxin adherence to host cells. This review focuses on the strategies of EPB and related enterotoxins to impair host cell immunity, discusses the anti-pathogenic properties of NDOs and SCFA on EPB functions and provides insight into the potential use of NDOs and SCFA as effective agents to fight against enterotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mostafa Asadpoor
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.A.); (G.-N.I.); (P.A.J.H.); (G.F.)
| | - Georgia-Nefeli Ithakisiou
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.A.); (G.-N.I.); (P.A.J.H.); (G.F.)
| | - Paul A. J. Henricks
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.A.); (G.-N.I.); (P.A.J.H.); (G.F.)
| | - Roland Pieters
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands;
| | - Gert Folkerts
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.A.); (G.-N.I.); (P.A.J.H.); (G.F.)
| | - Saskia Braber
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.A.); (G.-N.I.); (P.A.J.H.); (G.F.)
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Anti-Pathogenic Functions of Non-Digestible Oligosaccharides In Vitro. Nutrients 2020; 12:nu12061789. [PMID: 32560186 PMCID: PMC7353314 DOI: 10.3390/nu12061789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-digestible oligosaccharides (NDOs), complex carbohydrates that resist hydrolysis by salivary and intestinal digestive enzymes, fulfill a diversity of important biological roles. A lot of NDOs are known for their prebiotic properties by stimulating beneficial bacteria in the intestinal microbiota. Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) represent the first prebiotics that humans encounter in life. Inspired by these HMO structures, chemically-produced NDO structures (e.g., galacto-oligosaccharides and chito-oligosaccharides) have been recognized as valuable food additives and exert promising health effects. Besides their apparent ability to stimulate beneficial microbial species, oligosaccharides have shown to be important inhibitors of the development of pathogenic infections. Depending on the type and structural characteristics, oligosaccharides can exert a number of anti-pathogenic effects. The most described effect is their ability to act as a decoy receptor, thereby inhibiting adhesion of pathogens. Other ways of pathogenic inhibition, such as interference with pathogenic cell membrane and biofilm integrity and DNA transcription, are less investigated, but could be equally impactful. In this review, a comprehensive overview of In vitro anti-pathogenic properties of different NDOs and associated pathways are discussed. A framework is created categorizing all anti-pathogenic effects and providing insight into structural necessities for an oligosaccharide to exert one of these effects.
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Coleman CM, Ferreira D. Oligosaccharides and Complex Carbohydrates: A New Paradigm for Cranberry Bioactivity. Molecules 2020; 25:E881. [PMID: 32079271 PMCID: PMC7070526 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25040881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2020] [Revised: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cranberry is a well-known functional food, but the compounds directly responsible for many of its reported health benefits remain unidentified. Complex carbohydrates, specifically xyloglucan and pectic oligosaccharides, are the newest recognized class of biologically active compounds identified in cranberry materials. Cranberry oligosaccharides have shown similar biological properties as other dietary oligosaccharides, including effects on bacterial adhesion, biofilm formation, and microbial growth. Immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory activity has also been observed. Oligosaccharides may therefore be significant contributors to many of the health benefits associated with cranberry products. Soluble oligosaccharides are present at relatively high concentrations (~20% w/w or greater) in many cranberry materials, and yet their possible contributions to biological activity have remained unrecognized. This is partly due to the inherent difficulty of detecting these compounds without intentionally seeking them. Inconsistencies in product descriptions and terminology have led to additional confusion regarding cranberry product composition and the possible presence of oligosaccharides. This review will present our current understanding of cranberry oligosaccharides and will discuss their occurrence, structures, ADME, biological properties, and possible prebiotic effects for both gut and urinary tract microbiota. Our hope is that future investigators will consider these compounds as possible significant contributors to the observed biological effects of cranberry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina M. Coleman
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Division of Pharmacognosy, and the Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA
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Ezhilan M, Nesakumar N, Jayanth Babu K, Srinandan CS, Rayappan JBB. An Electronic Nose for Royal Delicious Apple Quality Assessment - A Tri-layer Approach. Food Res Int 2018; 109:44-51. [PMID: 29803469 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2018.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2017] [Revised: 03/30/2018] [Accepted: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Foodborne pathogens cause serious health issues and have a strong impact on the economy of the country. In this context, quality testing of royal delicious apple by detecting pathogen contamination using an electronic nose, which contains an array of six ready-made sensors, has been proposed. To estimate the types of pathogens, fresh, half and completely contaminated apple samples were considered for bacterial studies. This study revealed the presence of Staphylococcus, Salmonella and Shigella bacteria, which were in the order of zero, 102, 103-104 CFU/mL. Further, the recorded headspace GC-MS spectra of contaminated samples confirmed the presence of bacterial spoilage markers namely acetone, ethyl acetate, ethyl alcohol and acetaldehyde. Voltage swing of 0.2 and 0.5 V was observed for half and completely contaminated apple samples respectively with reference to the fresh sample. Voltage responses of the sensors fed to Principal component analysis and Ward's method of hierarchical cluster algorithms helped to assess the quality of apple samples. By correlating the results of tri-layers namely bacterial count, GCMS data and classification results, reference table was developed and embedded in the ATmega processor of the electronic nose for real-time quality estimation of apple samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeshwari Ezhilan
- Nanosensors Lab, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur 613 401, Tamil Nadu, India; School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur 613 401, Tamil Nadu, India; Centre for Nanotechnology & Advanced Biomaterials, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur 613 401, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Noel Nesakumar
- Electrodics & Electrocatalysis Division, Central Electrochemical Research Institute, Karaikudi 630 003, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - K Jayanth Babu
- Nanosensors Lab, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur 613 401, Tamil Nadu, India; School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur 613 401, Tamil Nadu, India; Centre for Nanotechnology & Advanced Biomaterials, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur 613 401, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - C S Srinandan
- Biofilm Biology Lab, Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur 613 401, Tamil Nadu, India; Centre for Nanotechnology & Advanced Biomaterials, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur 613 401, Tamil Nadu, India; School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur 613 401, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - John Bosco Balaguru Rayappan
- Nanosensors Lab, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur 613 401, Tamil Nadu, India; School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur 613 401, Tamil Nadu, India; Centre for Nanotechnology & Advanced Biomaterials, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur 613 401, Tamil Nadu, India.
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