Consumers' heterogeneity towards salt reduction: Insights from a case study with white rice

Sensory, structural breakdown, microstructure, salt release properties, and shelf life of salt-coated air-dried yellow alkaline noodles

Salt reduction in food has been employed to improve public health. The effects of salt coatings on sodium content, sensory properties, structural breakdown, microstructure, salt release properties, and shelf life of yellow alkaline noodles (YAN) were evaluated. 15 g/dL resistant starch HYLON™ VII (HC) or 5% (v/v) Semperfresh™ (SC) with 10, 20, and 30 g/dL sodium chloride (NaCl) were used. HC-Na30 and SC-Na30 had the highest sodium content and came closest to commercial YAN in taste and saltiness perception. Structural improvement was demonstrated with HC-Na10 and SC-Na10 as both noodles required maximum work to be broken down. Moreover, SEM micrographs of these noodles showed a more compact and dense appearance with increased continuity of the matrix and fewer voids and hollows. However, ruptured surfaces were observed in noodles coated with 20 and 30% salt. The enhanced salt release from the coatings was demonstrated in an in vivo analysis, with the released salt occurring rapidly from HC and SC coatings. HC-Na10 and SC-Na10 noodles had a shelf life of more than 8 days when stored at 4 °C, which is longer than HC-Na0 and SC-Na0 noodles. Storage at 4 °C decelerated the microbiological growth, changes in pH and CIE L* values in salt-coated noodles than storage at 25 °. Thus, HC-Na10 and SC-Na10 could be suitable formulations to replace commercial YAN.

Reduction of sodium chloride: a review

Sodium chloride (NaCl) is an enjoyable condiment. However, evidence is accumulating to indicate that an excessive intake of Na⁺ in food may lead to an increased risk of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. Previous systematic reviews have focused on replacing NaCl with other metal salts (e.g. KCl). However, new salty flavor enhancers (yeast extract, taste peptides, and odor compounds) have yet to be reviewed. This systematic review evaluates the methods for, and feasibility, of NaCl reduction. It defines NaCl reduction and considers the methods used for this purpose, especially the use of flavor enhancers (yeast extract, taste peptides, and odor compounds). © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

The Enhancement of the Perception of Saltiness by Odorants Selected from Chinese Douchi in Salt Solution

Douchi is a traditional fermented soya bean product that is popular for its smelled saltiness and unique flavor. In order to look for the relationship between smelled saltiness of volatiles and their saltiness-enhancing properties, gas chromatography-olfactometry/associated taste was used to select odorants associated with saltiness in Yongchuan Douchi. The enhancement effects of saltiness intensity by selected odorants were further verified by sensory evaluation analyses of 2-alternative forced-choice and odor-induced saltiness enhancement in a follow-up study. A total of 14 odorant compounds were selected for their odor-associated saltiness perception. The compounds of 2-ethyl-3,5-dimethyl pyrazine, 2,5-dimethyl pyrazine, dimethyl trisulfide, 3-(methylthio) propanol and 3-(methylthio) propanal could significantly enhance saltiness perception in salt solution. Among them, 2-ethyl-3,5-dimethyl pyrazine was reported for the first time to be able to improve the salty taste. The study suggested that salty food is an ideal material for selecting saltiness-enhancing odorants, which could provide more direct theoretical support for salt reduction in the food industry.

Addition of a visual cue to rice increases perceived flavour intensity but not liking

Rice is a common staple for about 50% of the world population. Sodium based ingredients such as table salt (NaCl) and mono-sodium glutamate (MSG) are often added to rice to increase flavour intensity and subsequent liking. Due to negative health consequences of excessive NaCl consumption and negative consumer perception of MSG, alternative strategies to increase perceived flavour intensity of rice are needed. As such, the present research aimed to investigate the effect of a visual product cue on perceived flavour intensity and liking of rice. In a within-subject, randomised design, 151 participants tasted six different rice samples (i.e., with and without a visual cue, at 0%, 0.05% and 0.1% MSG concentrations). Next, they rated perceived flavour intensity (rank-order and general labelled magnitude scale measures), liking (9-point hedonic scale) and preference (rank-order), over two sessions separated by one week. Across all MSG concentrations, the presence of the visual cue significantly increased reported perceived flavour intensity. No effect of the visual cue on liking nor preference were found. In conclusion, a visual product cue increased perceived flavour intensity of rice, but not liking or preference.

Is a Consumer Perception of Salt Modification a Sensory or a Behavioural Phenomenon? Insights from a Bread Study

Salt plays a major role in food manufacturing and affects the technological and sensory properties of foods. At the same time, high dietary salt intake increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases and represents a considerable public health concern. In many populations, bread is a major contributor to salt intake and is therefore targeted by health policies recommending salt reduction reformulations. However, producers are often reluctant to reduce salt content due to fears of potential negative effects on consumer acceptability and drops in sales. The present work aims to assess the effect of salt content on consumers’ hedonic liking and perception of saltiness intensity, as well as the interaction of these two. The study was conducted using two market-leading bread types (white and multigrain) and bread samples with the national average (reference), reduced (−15%) and increased (+10%) salt levels. A sensory evaluation study (n = 200) was done including a questionnaire on attitudes and behaviour regarding bread and salt, enabling the exploration of individual differences in reactions to modified levels of salt content. The latter only affected hedonic liking for the multigrain sample with 15% salt reduction but not for others, which discloses the importance of the bread matrix; and it did not affect the perception of saltiness intensity. Penalty analysis revealed that perceived non-optimal saltiness results in significantly penalised hedonic liking scores. Segmentation based on perceived saltiness disclosed the explanatory importance of underlying consumer behaviour dimensions which should be considered in designing bread reformulations.

Can sodium warnings modify preferences? A case study with white bread

Several studies have shown that the inclusion of front of pack nutritional warnings is a potentially effective strategy to encourage consumers to avoid products with high content of nutrients associated with non-communicable diseases. In this context, the present work aimed at exploring consumers' reaction towards sodium reduction in the context of the implementation of warnings in three scenarios: package evaluation, tasting and intention to re-purchase the product after tasting, using white bread as case study. A total of 171 consumers participated in the study that encompassed four parts. Firstly, consumers received two bread samples with different salt content (2.00% and 1.38% salt) under blind conditions and were asked to rate their overall liking and to indicate the one they preferred. Then, they were asked to look at four bread packages differing in graphic design and the presence of warnings. They had to rate their expected liking and to indicate the one they would purchase. Finally, consumers were asked to try the bread they had previously chosen, to assess their overall liking and to indicate their willingness to purchase it again. Salt content significantly affected consumer hedonic reaction towards the breads. Two consumer segments with different preference for the salt content in bread were identified: 58% of consumers preferred the bread with 2.00% salt while 42% preferred breads with 1.38% salt. However, when looking at the packages the majority of consumers in both groups selected bread packages that did not feature warnings. In addition, after having tried the bread, most consumers were willing to buy the bread they had previously chosen again, which is promising in terms of reaching sustainable changes towards lower salt levels. Results from the present work suggest that, in the case of bread, nutritional warnings have potential to shift consumers' preferences to lower sodium content, even after trying the products.

The influence of companion foods on sensory attribute perception and liking of regular and sodium-reduced foods

Among major contributors of dietary sodium intake, many foods are consumed together with companion foods, specifically condiments and carriers. This study compared sensory profiles and overall liking between commercially available regular and sodium-reduced foods consumed with or without companion foods; and examined changes in sensory profiles and overall liking when foods are consumed in condiment-carrier pairs. Three distinct consumer panels evaluated one of the three condiment-carrier pairs, salsa-corn chips (n = 98, 63% female), ketchup-tater tots (n = 100, 69% female), and soy sauce-cooked rice (n = 98, 70% female). For each panel, consumers evaluated five samples; including the regular and sodium-reduced carriers/condiments alone, the companion food alone, and the regular and sodium-reduced foods each with its companion food. Samples were rated for overall liking (9-point hedonic scale) and the intensity of defining sensory attributes (3-point Rate-All-That-Apply scale). Consumers perceived sensory attribute differences between regular and sodium-reduced corn chips (salty) and soy sauce (salty, sweet), but not ketchup. The presence of the companion food reduced consumer ability to discriminate sensory attributes between regular and sodium-reduced products and changed sensory profiles and liking of the foods. Additionally, consumer heterogeneity in hedonic response identified three consumer segments in each consumer panel. Consumer segments differed in their sensory attribute perception. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: It is possible for the food industry to reduce sodium in a range of companion foods without changing consumer preference. The selection of companion foods is important to consumer evaluation of foods under the context of food pairing; corn chips-salsa and ketchup-tater tots are appropriate food pairs. Future sensory studies on food reformulation toward sodium reduction should target specific consumer segments of product liking and sensory attribute perception, which may in turn be influenced by food consumption frequency.