Comparative analysis of whey proteins in donkey colostrum and mature milk using quantitative proteomics

Novel insights into whey protein among Yak, Yellow Cattle, and Cattle-Yak milk

This study identified characteristic whey proteins from Zhongdian Yak (ZY), Diqing Yellow Cattle (DYC), and Cattle Yak (CY), revealing insights into their potential functions and released peptides. A total of 118 whey proteins were quantified in milk obtained from the three breeds of cattle, including seven characteristic proteins (IGL@ protein, 40S ribosomal protein S9, calreticulin, etc.) in CY milk and two characteristic proteins (RNA helicase and uncharacterized protein (A0A3Q1LFQ2)) in ZY milk. These characteristic proteins are involved in the phagosome and Fc gamma R-mediated phagocytosis pathways, exhibiting immunoprotective activities, verified through molecular docking. Furthermore, the molecular docking results showed five whey proteins (IGL@ protein, rho GDP-dissociation inhibitor 1, small monomeric GTPase, action-like protein 3, and adenylyl cyclase-associated protein) interacted with TLR4 through multiple hydrogen and hydrophobic bonds. Therefore, these proteins may exert immunomodulatory functions by inhibiting TLR4. Meanwhile, whey proteins produced bioactive peptides, such as antioxidant peptides and ACE inhibitory peptides after simulated gastrointestinal digestion (SGID). The whey proteins and bioactive peptides from CY exhibited more types and activities than the ZY and DYC whey proteins. This study provides a theoretical basis for promoting formula milk powder production.

Label-free-based proteomic analysis reveals differential whey proteins of porcine milk during lactation

In this study, label-free proteomic technology was applied to analyze and compare the whey proteomes of porcine colostrum and mature milk. In total, 2993 and 2906 whey proteins were detected in porcine colostrum and mature milk, respectively. A total of 2745 common proteins were identified in the two milk samples, and 280 proteins were found to be significantly differentially expressed whey proteins in porcine milk. Gene Ontology analysis demonstrated that the differentially expressed whey proteins were primarily enriched in lipid homeostasis, oxidoreductase activity, and the collagen trimer. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis suggested that the phagosome and endocytosis were the crucial pathways. This study provides systematic and in-depth insight into the compositions and functional properties of whey proteins in porcine milk during different periods of lactation, which may be beneficial for the development of porcine whey proteins in the future.

Transcriptome analysis reveals immune function-related mRNA expression in donkey mammary glands during four developmental stages

The low susceptibility to mastitis of female donkey (jenny) mammary glands and the strong immune properties of donkey milk are acknowledged, but little is known about the genes involved in mammary gland immunity in jennies. Herein, we used RNA-sequencing and bioinformatics analyses to explore jenny mammary gland transcriptomes and detect potential functional differentially expressed (DE) mRNAs related to immunity during four specific developmental stages: foetal (F), pubertal (P), adult parous nonlactation (N) and lactation (L). A total of 2497, 583 and 1820 DE mRNAs were identified in jenny mammary glands at F vs. P, P vs. N, and N vs. L, respectively. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Gene and Genomes (KEGG) analyses revealed numerous GO terms related to immune function, especially between F and P. Seven significantly enriched profiles were identified, among which 497 and 1261 DE mRNAs were upregulated in profiles 19 and 17. Eleven mRNAs were enriched in over 10 KEGG pathways. β-2-microglobulin (B2M), immunoglobulin heavy constant mu (IGHM), toll like receptor 2 (TLR2), toll like receptor 4 (TLR4) and myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MYD88) were mainly involved in phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt signalling, phagosome and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-kappa B) signalling pathways. The findings provide insight into the molecular features underpinning the low prevalence of intramammary infections (i.e., mastitis) in donkeys.

Comparative metabolomic analysis and antigenicity comparison of cow milk and enzymatically treated cow milk

BACKGROUND

Amino acids (AAs) are important protein building blocks that play a critical role in the function of the immune system. However, comprehensive comparative metabolomics and antigenicity analyses of cow milk (CM) and enzymatically treated CM are relatively scarce. This study analyzed the AAs in the CM and Flavourzyme-treated milk groups (FT), and their antigenicity was also explored.

RESULTS

Overall, 50 AAs were detected in the CM and FT groups, with 23 significantly different AAs. The interaction network of these significantly different AAs was analyzed, and 34 significantly different metabolic pathways were found to be involved. It was also found that the antigenicity of the FT group was significantly reduced in comparison with that of the CM group.

CONCLUSION

These results enhance our understanding of AAs and antigenicity regarding CM and FT, and provide new ideas and directions for the development of high-quality hypoallergenic dairy products. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

A comparison of milk fat globule membranes and whey proteomes: New insight into variation nutrient differences between Buffalo, Cow, Goat, and Yak

In this study, the whey and milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) proteomes of buffalo, cow, goat, and yak milk were analyzed using label-free proteomic technology. Totally, 1,292 MFGM proteins and 686 whey proteins were identified from these four species, and GO analysis revealed there were specific proteins with different functions in both whey (376) and MFGM (982) proteomes. The principal component analysis showed that ALB, TF, CSN1S1, and GLYCAM1 are characteristic markers of the milk for each of the four species. Furthermore, the conserved and differential in the expression of whey and MFGM proteins across the four species were identified by limma, and subsequent KEGG pathway analysis showed that immune-related proteins are both conserved and species-specific in the four species. These results provide a deepening of the understanding of the characteristics of proteins in whey and MFGMs from these four common dairy animals and new insight into developing dairy production.

Proteomics and Peptidomics As a Tool to Compare the Proteins and Endogenous Peptides in Human, Cow, and Donkey Milk

Cow's milk is the most widely used ingredient in infant formulas. However, its specific protein composition can cause allergic reactions. Finding alternatives to replace cow's milk and fill the nutritional gap with human milk is essential for the health of infants. Proteomic and peptidomic techniques have supported the elucidation of milk's nutritional ingredients. Recently, omics approaches have attracted increasing interest in the investigation of milk because of their high throughput, precision, sensitivity, and reproducibility. This review offers a significant overview of recent developments in proteomics and peptidomics used to study the differences in human, cow, and donkey milk. All three types of milks were identified to have critical biological functions in human health, particularly in infants. Donkey milk proteins were closer in composition to human milk, were less likely to cause allergic reactions, and may be developed as novel raw materials for formula milk powders.

A survey report on the donkey original breeding farms in China: Current aspects and future prospective

Introduction

The number of the large-scale donkey breeding farms in China has increased dramatically. However, information regarding the situation of a Chinese donkey population under large-scale donkey breeding farms is limited.

Methods

This survey report was conducted using questionnaires online to investigate the current situation of the donkey original breeding farms in China, in terms of donkey stock, local breeds, reproductive parameters, growth and lactation performance, and future perspectives. China has developed the donkey reserve system based on national, provincial and non-governmental (self-own) donkey original breeding farms.

Results

In the present study, a total of 38 donkey original breeding farms concentrated in Northern of China were studied, and 52% of them keep their donkeys with a stocking density of 100-500 donkeys. China is rich in various local donkey breeds, and 16 local donkey breeds including large-sized, medium-sized and small-sized breeds were collected in our survey. Dezhou donkey are prevalent with a percentage of more than 57% of the total donkeys, while the Cullen donkeys belong to small-sized donkey breeds are scare. The reproductive efficiency and donkey productivity were different across donkey farms, indicating potential differences in management and breeding practices between different donkey original breeding farms. The artificial insemination has been performed in these donkey farms with an average proportion of 73%. Regarding the donkey productivity, the national and provincial donkey original breeding farms showed a higher birthweight and fat content in donkey milk than self-own farms. Furthermore, our results indicate that the donkey breeds with different body size also have important influence on the reproduction parameters and donkey productivity, with the large-sized donkeys had better performance compared to the small-sized donkeys.

Discussion

In summary, our survey provided valuable baseline information on the situation of donkey population dynamics in the donkey original breeding farms. However, further study is required in the future to investigate the factors such as donkey health care, management and nutrition during breeding, fattening and lactation that influence donkey productivity under large-scale farm systems.

Proteomic characterization and comparison of milk fat globule membrane proteins of Saanen goat milk from 3 habitats in China using SWATH-MS technique

Saanen goats are among the major dairy goats in China. In present study, variation of milk fat globule membrane proteins profile of Saanen goat milk caused by geographic location was investigated using sequential window acquisition of all theoretical fragment ions data-independent acquisition mass spectrometry based proteomic approach. A total of 1,001 proteins were quantified in goat milk collected from 3 habitats of China [Guangdong (GD); Inner Mongolia (IM); Shannxi (SX)]. Most of the proteins were found to act cellular process of biological process, cell of cellular component, binding of molecular function after Gene Ontology annotation and metabolic of pathway indicated by Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis. Differentially expressed proteins (DEP) for GD versus IM, GD versus SX, IM versus SX were identified to be 81, 91, and 44, respectively. Gene Ontology enrichment analysis showed that the greatest DEP for 3 groups (GD vs. IM, GD vs. SX, IM vs. SX) were cellular process, cellular process and organonitrogen compound biosynthetic process/immune system process for biological process. For cellular component, the largest number of DEP for 3 comparison groups were organelle, organelle and organelle/intracellular. For molecular function, DEP of the 3 comparison groups were expressed most in structural molecule activity, binding and anion binding, respectively. Pathways with the majority of DEP were ribosome, systemic lupus erythematosus and primary immunodeficiency/systemic lupus erythematosus/amoebiasis/PI3K-Akt signaling pathway for GD versus IM, GD versus SX and IM versus SX, severally. Protein-protein interaction network analysis showed that DEP interacted most were 40S ribosomal protein S5, fibronectin and Cytochrome b-c1 complex subunit 2, mitochondrial for GD versus IM, GD versus SX and IM versus SX, separately. Data may give useful information for goat milk selection and milk authenticity in China.

Proteomic approach-based comparison of metabolic pathways and functional activities of whey proteins derived from Guishan and Saanen goat milk

Guishan goats, a unique goat breed in Yunnan Province, have a long history and representation, but their whey protein and function remain unclear. In this study, we carried out a quantitative analysis of the Guishan and Saanen goat whey proteome using a label-free proteomic approach. A total of 500 proteins were quantified from the 2 kinds of goat whey proteins, including 463 common proteins, 37 uniquely expressed whey proteins (UEWP), and 12 differentially expressed whey proteins (DEWP). Bioinformatics analysis indicated that UEWP and DEWP were mainly involved in cellular and immune system processes, membrane, and binding. In addition, UEWP and DEWP in Guishan goats participated primarily in metabolism and immune-related pathways, whereas Saanen goat whey proteins were associated mostly with environmental information processing-related pathways. Guishan goat whey promoted the growth of RAW264.7 macrophages more than Saanen goat whey, and significantly reduced the production of nitric oxide in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. This study provides a reference for further understanding these 2 goat whey proteins and finding functional active substances from them.

An Integrated Analysis of Lactation-Related miRNA and mRNA Expression Profiles in Donkey Mammary Glands

Donkey milk is consumed by humans for its nutritional and therapeutic properties. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) and messenger RNAs (mRNAs) have been implicated in the regulation of milk component synthesis and mammary gland development. However, the regulatory profile of the miRNAs and mRNAs involved in lactation in donkeys is unclear. We performed mRNA-seq and miRNA-seq and constructed coexpression regulatory networks for the mammary glands during the lactating and nonlactating period of jennies. We identified 3144 differentially expressed (DE) mRNAs (987 upregulated mRNAs and 2157 downregulated mRNAs) and 293 DE miRNAs (231 upregulated miRNAs and 62 downregulated miRNAs) in the lactating group compared to the nonlactating group. The DE miRNA target mRNA were significantly associated with pathways related to RNA polymerase, glycosphingolipid biosynthesis, mRNA surveillance, ribosome biogenesis in eukaryotes, glycerophospholipid metabolism, Ras signaling, and the fly hippo signaling pathway. The mRNA–miRNA coregulation analysis showed that novel-m0032-3p, miR-195, miR-26-5p, miR-23-3p, miR-674-3p, and miR-874-3p are key miRNAs that target mRNAs involved in immunity and milk lipid, protein, and vitamin metabolism in the jenny mammary gland. Our results improve the current knowledge of the molecular mechanisms regulating bioactive milk component metabolism in the mammary glands and could be used to improve milk production in donkeys.

Comparative analysis of differentially abundant proteins between high and low intramuscular fat content groups in donkeys

Intramuscular fat (IMF) is an important regulator that determines meat quality, and its content is closely related to flavor, tenderness, and juiciness. Many studies have used quantitative proteomic analysis to identify proteins associated with meat quality traits in livestock, however, the potential candidate proteins that influence IMF in donkey muscle are not fully understood. In this study, we performed quantitative proteomic analysis, with tandem-mass-tagged (TMT) labeling, with samples from the longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle of the donkey. A total of 585,555 spectra were identified from the six muscle samples used in this study. In total, 20,583 peptides were detected, including 15,279 unique peptides, and 2,540 proteins were identified. We analyzed differentially abundant proteins (DAPs) between LD muscles of donkeys with high (H) and low (L) IMF content. We identified 30 DAPs between the H and L IMF content groups, of which 17 were upregulated and 13 downregulated in the H IMF group. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) functional enrichment analysis of these DAPs revealed many GO terms (e.g., bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) receptor binding) and pathways (e.g., Wnt signaling pathway and Hippo signaling pathway) involved in lipid metabolism and adipogenesis. The construction of protein–protein interaction networks identified 16 DAPs involved in these networks. Our data provide a basis for future investigations into candidate proteins involved in IMF deposition and potential new approaches to improve meat quality in the donkey.

Comparative Whey Proteome Profiling of Donkey Milk With Human and Cow Milk

Donkey milk (DM), similar to human milk (HM) in chemical composition, has been suggested as the best potential hypoallergenic replacement diet for babies suffering from Cow milk (CM) protein allergy. In order to better understand DM protein, many studies based on proteomic have been performed. In this study, the label-free quantitative proteomic approach was conducted to quantitatively identify the differentially expressed whey proteins (DEPs) in DM vs. HM group and DM vs. CM group. In total, 241 and 365 DEPs were found in these two groups, respectively. Bioinformatics analysis of DEPs showed that the majority of DEPs participated in the lipoprotein metabolic process, regulation of cytokine production, chemical homeostasis, and catabolic process. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Gene and Genomes (KEGG) pathways analysis found that these DEPs mainly participated in an antigen processing, complement, and coagulation cascades. These results may provide valuable information in the composition of milk whey proteins in DM, HM, and CM, especially for low abundant components, and expand our knowledge of different biological functions between DM and HM or CM.

Comparative whey proteome analysis of small-tailed Han and DairyMeade ovine milk

We characterized the proteome profile of mid-lactation small-tailed Han (STH) and DairyMeade (DM) ovine milk in order to explore physiological variation and differences in milk traits between the two breeds. Methodology combined a tandem mass tag (TMT) proteomic approach with LC-MS/MS technology. A total of 656 proteins were identified in STH and DM ovine milk, of which 17and 29 proteins were significantly upregulated (P < 0.05) in STH and DM, respectively. Immune-related proteins and disease-related proteins were highly expressed in STH milk, whereas S100A2 and AEBP1 were highly expressed in DM milk, which had beneficial effects on mammary gland development and milk yield. Our results provide a theoretical basis for future breeding of dairy sheep.

Effects of donkey milk on oxidative stress and inflammatory response

Donkey milk is gaining interest as a natural nutritional and medicinal product, mainly because its composition is similar to that of human milk, and it has some potential biological properties, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiaging, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties. Considering the increasing prevalence of several chronic diseases related to oxidative stress and inflammation and the multiple beneficial properties and nutritional value of donkey milk, an up-to-date review of the current studies related to the antioxidative and anti-inflammatory abilities of donkey milk is necessary. Therefore, this review aims to discuss the relationship between inflammation and oxidative stress; and to further systematically review the progress of recent research on donkey milk, mainly including its nutritional value and functional properties. Particularly, we highlighted the anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties of donkey milk using in vitro model, animal model, and the potential role of donkey milk in alleviating some chronic diseases related to inflammation. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This paper was conducted on anti-inflammation and antioxidant activities of donkey milk and its related products, in addition to a summary of the relationship between oxidative stress and inflammation and the value of donkey milk. Donkey milk and its related products have been shown to scavenge reactive oxygen species, activate the antioxidant system, enhance immune function, and maintain the balance of intestinal flora in in vitro and in vivo models. This paper should provide a better understanding of the influences of oxidative stress and inflammation on host health and the biological functions and application of donkey milk, and will provide a certain basis for the nutritional regulation of several chronic diseases related to oxidative stress and inflammation. However, the underlying mechanism is poorly understood. In addition, few clinical studies have been performed to establish its multiple benefits in humans. Further research is warranted to evaluate its impacts on health at molecular levels.

A High-Throughput Comparative Proteomics of Milk Fat Globule Membrane Reveals Breed and Lactation Stages Specific Variation in Protein Abundance and Functional Differences Between Milk of Saanen Dairy Goat and Holstein Bovine

Large variations in the bioactivities and composition of milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) proteins were observed between Saanen dairy goat and Holstein bovine at various lactation periods. In the present study, 331, 250, 182, and 248 MFGM proteins were characterized in colostrum and mature milk for the two species by Q-Orbitrap HRMS-based proteomics techniques. KEGG pathway analyses displayed that differentially expressed proteins in colostrum involved in galactose metabolism and an adipogenesis pathway, and the differentially expressed proteins in mature milk associated with lipid metabolism and a PPAR signaling pathway. These results indicated that the types and functions of MFGM proteins in goat and bovine milk were different, and goat milk had a better function of fatty acid metabolism and glucose homeostasis, which can enhance our understanding of MFGM proteins in these two species across different lactation periods, and they provide significant information for the study of lipid metabolism and glycometabolism of goat milk.

Current Knowledge on Functionality and Potential Therapeutic Uses of Donkey Milk

Simple Summary

This paper examines scientific evidence on the positive effects of donkey milk consumption on human health and its possible therapeutic applications. The most investigated clinical use of donkey milk is in feeding infants with food allergies, in whom donkey milk is well tolerated in the 82.6–98.5% of cases. Donkey milk has shown several beneficial properties, including immunomodulatory activity, antioxidant and detoxifying effects, modulation of the intestinal microbiota, and lowering of blood sugar and triglycerides, which have been tested almost exclusively in experimental animals. Inhibitory actions on microorganisms have been also observed in vitro studies. This literature review highlights the need for new clinical trials to collect stronger evidence about the positive effects observed in experimental models which could lead to new therapeutic applications of donkey milk in humans.

Abstract

The increase of knowledge on the composition of donkey milk has revealed marked similarities to human milk, which led to a growing number of investigations focused on testing the potential effects of donkey milk in vitro and in vivo. This paper examines the scientific evidence regarding the beneficial effects of donkey milk on human health. Most clinical studies report a tolerability of donkey milk in 82.6–98.5% of infants with cow milk protein allergies. The average protein content of donkey milk is about 18 g/L. Caseins, which are main allergenic components of milk, are less represented compared to cow milk (56% of the total protein in donkey vs. 80% in cow milk). Donkey milk is well accepted by children due to its high concentration of lactose (about 60 g/L). Immunomodulatory properties have been reported in one study in humans and in several animal models. Donkey milk also seems to modulate the intestinal microbiota, enhance antioxidant defense mechanisms and detoxifying enzymes activities, reduce hyperglycemia and normalize dyslipidemia. Donkey milk has lower calorie and fat content compared with other milks used in human nutrition (fat ranges from 0.20% to 1.7%) and a more favourable fatty acid profile, being low in saturated fatty acids (3.02 g/L) and high in alpha-linolenic acid (about 7.25 g/100 g of fat). Until now, the beneficial properties of donkey milk have been mostly related to whey proteins, among which β-lactoglobulin is the most represented (6.06 g/L), followed by α-lactalbumin (about 2 g/L) and lysozyme (1.07 g/L). So far, the health functionality of donkey milk has been tested almost exclusively on animal models. Furthermore, in vitro studies have described inhibitory action against bacteria, viruses, and fungi. From the literature review emerges the need for new randomized clinical trials on humans to provide stronger evidence of the potential beneficial health effects of donkey milk, which could lead to new applications as an adjuvant in the treatment of cardiometabolic diseases, malnutrition, and aging.

Comparative Analysis of Whey Proteins in Human Milk Using a Data-Independent Acquisition Proteomics Approach during the Lactation Period

Human milk (HM) is the primary source of nutrients and bioactive components that supports the growth and development of infants. However, the proteins present in human milk may change depending on the period of lactation. In this light, the objective of the present study was to evaluate the effect of lactation period on HM utilizing a data-independent acquisition (DIA) approach to identify the differences in HM whey protein proteomes. As part of the study, whey proteins of January, February, and June in human milk were studied. The results identified a total of 1563 proteins in HM whey proteins of which 114 groups were subunits of differentially expressed proteins as revealed by cluster analysis. Protein expression was observed to be affected by the period of lactation with expression levels of plasminogen, thrombospondin-1, and tenascin higher during January, keratin, type I cytoskeletal 9 highest in February, and transcobalamin-1 highest in June. The results of this study contribute to expand our understanding of the human whey proteome but also provide strong evidence for the nutritional difference of HM during different lactation periods.

Donkey milk inhibits triple-negative breast tumor progression and is associated with increased cleaved-caspase-3 expression

Donkey milk is considered an ideal substitute for human milk and is considered a potential complementary dairy product for the treatment of a variety of human diseases, including cancer. The purpose of this study was to investigate the inhibitory effect of donkey colostrum (DC) and mature milk (DM) on 4T1 triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) tumors in mice. Metabolomics analyses showed that a total of 476 possible metabolites were found in both types of milk. Among them, 34 differential metabolites were identified, including 25 up-regulated and 9 down-regulated metabolites in the DC compared with DM. Both DC and DM are rich in many known anticancer constituents. The inhibitory effects of DC and DM on 4T1 primary tumors and the relative organ weight of the liver and lungs were determined by measuring the volume of primary tumors and weighing the liver and lungs. Both DC and DM significantly reduced both the primary tumor size and relative organ weight of the liver and lungs in 4T1 mice without affecting the bodyweight of mice. When the expression of cleaved caspase-3, Bax, and MMP2 was investigated by immunohistochemistry, the results showed that DC and DM inhibited the progression of 4T1 tumors by inducing the expression of cleaved-caspase-3 and Bax, and inhibiting the expression of MMP2 and CD31. Our data suggest that DC and DM inhibit the growth and metastasis of mouse 4T1 tumors by inducing apoptosis.

Antibacterial potential of donkey's milk disclosed by untargeted proteomics

Donkey's milk (DM) has been extensively investigated as a valuable substitute of breast milk, often suitable to manage cow's milk protein allergy in infants. DM exhibits potent inhibitory properties against numerous microbial species. Although oligosaccharides and lipids might contribute to the antimicrobial potential, the current inventory of proteins is not able to justify the low count of microorganisms generally observed in DM. The shotgun proteomic analysis of fractionated DM disclosed a set of 94 gene products, 41% of which have documented antimicrobial activity or are involved in transferring the passive immunity to the donkey offspring. The concerted action of lysozyme, lactoferrin, immunoglobulins provides the molecular basis for part of the DM antibacterial potential. The pH -4.6 insoluble fraction contained significant levels of L-amino acid oxidase, identified with 11 unique peptides matching the horse homologue gene product. This enzyme catalyses the oxidative deamination of amino acids into ketoacids, producing ammonia and H₂O₂. κ-casein, likely occurring as a fully O-glycosylated protein, may concur to inhibit the adhesion of pathogenic microorganisms, along with other glycoproteins. Proteomics supports the alimentary use of DM not only as a substitute of human milk in early infancy, but also for growing children, convalescent, elderly people and general population. SIGNIFICANCE: Donkey's milk (DM) is acquiring increasing popularity because it is a suitable substitute of the human milk, when breastfeeding is not possible and infants suffer from cow's milk allergy. DM is characterized by a much lower microbial load compared to ruminants' milk. This feature has been traditionally attributed to the high content of lysozyme. DM exhibits potent activity against a broad range of bacteria, viruses and fungi, suggesting that other protein components can be responsible of the antimicrobial potential. The gel-free proteomic analysis of pH 4.6-insoluble and soluble (whey) fractions demonstrated that DM contains a large number of gene products involved in antimicrobial mechanisms and in transferring passive immunity to the donkey offspring. DM contains relatively high levels of L-amino acid oxidase that catalyses the oxidative deamination of amino acid substrates into ketoacids, with production of ammonia and H₂O₂. In combination with lysozyme, lactoferrin and immunoglobulins, the presence of L-amino acid oxidase provides the molecular basis of the antibacterial potential observed for DM. Considered the low microbial load, DM can be sanitated at mild conditions, thereby preserving many of the native nutritional traits. Thus, DM can be considered a safe and nutritionally valid alimentary resource for growing children, convalescent, elderly people and general population. Data of this study represent the largest inventory of proteins identified in Equidae milk, so far.

Insights on Health and Food Applications of Equus asinus (Donkey) Milk Bioactive Proteins and Peptides-An Overview

Due to its similarity with human milk and its low allergenic properties, donkey milk has long been used as an alternative for infants and patients with cow's milk protein allergy (CMPA). In addition, this milk is attracting growing interest in human nutrition because of presumed health benefits. It has antioxidant, antimicrobial, antitumoral, antiproliferative and antidiabetic activity. In addition, it stimulates the immune system, regulates the gastrointestinal flora, and prevents inflammatory diseases. Although all donkey milk components can contribute to functional and nutritional effects, it is generally accepted that the whey protein fraction plays a significant role. This review aims to highlight the active proteins and peptides of donkey milk in comparison with other types of milk, emphasizing their properties and their roles in different fields of health and food applications.

Characterizing the Serum Proteome of Donkeys (Equus asinus)

Serum and plasma are commonly used in clinical practice considering the widely accepted fact that the "normal" protein expression pattern of a healthy animal changes under disease conditions. We herein used a label-free mass spectrometry-based quantitative proteomics approach to characterize the serum proteome of donkeys. A total of 277 unique proteins were identified from 2,388 unique peptides. Gene ontology analyses showed that the most frequent processes were related to metabolic activities and biological regulation, response to stimulus, and immune system processes. The main annotated areas of origin were the extracellular region, extracellular region part, and organelle, and their molecular functions included binding, catalytic activity, and molecular function regulator. Analyses using the Clusters of Orthologous Groups for Eukaryotic Complete Genomes database indicated that the identified proteins could be categorized into three main groups: signal transduction mechanisms, amino acid transport and metabolism, and defense mechanisms. Most of the unique proteins were associated with the complement and coagulation cascades, and they participated in several disease-related metabolic pathways. Our results should be crucial for further analyses of changes in different physiological and pathophysiological conditions in donkeys.