Comparison of interaction between three similar chalconoids and α-lactalbumin: Impact on structure and functionality of α-lactalbumin

Optimization of pH-responsive microgel for the co-delivery of Weizmannia coagulans and procyanidins to enhance survival rate and tolerance

The purpose of this study was to prepare a pH-responsive microgel for co-delivering Weizmannia coagulans 99 (BC99) and procyanidins (PCs) to enhance the survival rate and tolerance of probiotics in complex micro-environment. The effects of different concentrations of PCs on the properties of microgels were optimized, and found that the spherical microgels had higher encapsulation efficiency (90.27 ± 2.51%) and smaller size when the concentration of PCs was 20 μg/mL. The interaction among PCs, pectin and protein could effectively improve the survival rate of BC99 under different pH, bile salt, digestive enzyme and temperature conditions, maintain their stability in acidic gastric fluid, and realize the release of probiotics in neutral intestinal fluid. Moreover, the microgel was able to protect BC99 against H2O2 and antibiotics. This work provides a pH-responsive co-loaded microgels for BC99 and PCs, and has the potential in the loading and delivery of other probiotics and polyphenols.

Assessment of transglutaminase catalyzed cross-linking on the potential allergenicity and conformation of heterologous protein polymers

Transglutaminase (TGase)-mediated cross-linking has gained significant attention due to its potential to reduce the allergenicity of food proteins. This study investigates the effects of TGase cross-linking on allergenicity and conformational modifications in a dual-protein system comprising soy protein isolate (SPI) and β-lactoglobulin (β-LG). The results showed that TGase cross-linking effectively decreased the allergenic potential of both SPI and β-LG, with a more pronounced reduction observed in the allergenicity of soy protein in the dual-protein system. SDS-PAGE analysis revealed that the 7S and 11S subunits of soy protein were more easily cross-linked than β-LG. Secondary structure analysis indicated that TGase treatment disrupted β-sheet structures, increased the content of random coils, and enhanced protein flexibility. Ultraviolet absorption and intrinsic fluorescence analyses confirmed these structural alterations, with TGase treatment exposing additional aromatic amino acids. A reduction in free sulfhydryl groups and altered intermolecular forces further corroborated the occurrence of cross-linking. These findings suggest that TGase-mediated cross-linking effectively reduced the allergenicity of SPI and β-LG by modifying their conformations, offering potential strategies for the development of hypoallergenic dual-protein food products. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study has practical applications in the food industry to develop hypoallergenic food products, particularly those that combine soy and dairy proteins. By using TGase to cross-link these proteins, the allergenicity can be reduced, resulting in products that are safer for consumers with food allergies.

Predominance of non-covalent interactions of polyphenols with milk proteins and their health promoting properties

Polyphenols have widely accepted health benefits which are limited by their low uptake, low bioavailability, and rapid degradation in the gut. While milk proteins are excellent carriers for polyphenols, the specific interactions of the polyphenols with the milk proteins, need to be understood to facilitate the utilization of these delivery systems in food and pharmaceutical applications. We have evaluated the relevance of different factors affecting milk protein-polyphenol interactions and the subsequent impact on the bioavailability and health promoting aspects of polyphenols. Hydrophobic forces are the primary binding forces of polyphenols to milk proteins. The significant factors affecting the interactions and binding affinity are the molecular weight and the hydrophobicity of the polyphenols. The interaction of polyphenols with milk proteins improved the antioxidant activity in comparison to milk proteins, while conflicting results exists for comparisons with polyphenols. In-vitro and cell line studies demonstrated enhanced bioavailability of polyphenols in the presence of milk proteins as well as higher anti-cancer and anti-allergy benefits. Overall, this work will pave the way for better understanding of polyphenol interactions with milk proteins and enable the tailoring of complexes through sustainable green processes, enabling higher bioavailability and health promoting effects of the polyphenols in food and pharmaceutical applications.

Hydroxyl group-induced enhancement of antioxidant activity of resveratrol over pterostilbene by binding to lactoferrin

The reduced antioxidant capacity of trans-resveratrol (Res) than the second generation of Res, namely pterostilbene (Pte), severely prohibits its in-depth intriguing radical-scavenging applications in food formulations. Herein, a unique chemical structure-dependent strategy was proposed to specifically enhance the radical scavenging activity of Res over Pte, relying on the two more hydroxyl groups on the A-benzene ring of Res, thus facilitating its binding with lactoferrin (LF) to form stable complexes through more hydrogen bonds. We prepared LF-Res and LF-Pte complexes, revealed their binding mechanisms by multispectral analysis and molecular docking/dynamics simulations, further evaluated their antioxidant properties via ABTS and DPPH assays and a model of inhibiting apple browning, eventually elucidated their structure-binding-property relationships. This contribution offers a new approach to restore the antioxidant capability of Res, also paves the way to precisely regulate the fascinating bioactivities of hydrophobic compounds by protein-binding in a chemical structure-, especially hydroxyl group-dependent manner.

Covalent polyphenols-proteins interactions in food processing: formation mechanisms, quantification methods, bioactive effects, and applications

Proteins and polyphenols are abundant in the daily diet of humans and their interactions influence, among other things, the texture, flavor, and bioaccessibility of food. There are two types of interactions between them: non-covalent interactions and covalent interactions, the latter being irreversible and more powerful. In this review, we systematically summarized advances in the investigation of possible mechanism underlying covalent polyphenols-proteins interaction in food processing, effect of different processing methods on covalent interaction, methods for characterizing covalent complexes, and impacts of covalent interactions on protein structure, function and nutritional value, as well as potential bioavailability of polyphenols. In terms of health promotion of the prepared covalent complexes, health effects such as antioxidant, hypoglycemic, regulation of intestinal microbiota and regulation of allergic reactions have been summarized. Also, the possible applications in food industry, especially as foaming agents, emulsifiers and nanomaterials have also been discussed. In order to offer directions for novel research on their interactions in food systems, nutritional value, and health properties in vivo, we considered the present challenges and future perspectives of the topic.

Myricetin and morin hydrate inhibit amyloid fibril formation of bovine α-lactalbumin (BLA)

Amyloid fibrils are self-assembled aggregates of proteins and peptides that can lead to a broad range of diseases called amyloidosis. So far, no definitive and approved treatment to target directly amyloid fibrils has been introduced. Nevertheless, the search for small molecules with ability to inhibit and suppress fibril formation is an active and promising area of the research. Herein, the binding interactions and inhibitory effects of myricetin and morin hydrate on the in vitro fibrillation of bovine α-lactalbumin (BLA) have been investigated. The intrinsic fluorescence of BLA was quenched by myricetin and morin hydrate through combination of the static and dynamic quenching along with non-radiative Förster energy transfer mechanisms. The binding of these two flavonoids to BLA were not accompanied by major alteration in the conformation of BLA as evidenced by CD studies. The results of the fluorescence quenching analyses indicated almost the same binding affinities of myricetin and morin hydrate toward BLA (Kb ~ 106 M-1). However, the results of thioflavin T (ThT) assays showed that myricetin is a stronger inhibitor against BLA fibrillation compared to morin hydrate.

Interaction mechanism of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) seed protein and flavonoids: Fluorescent and 3D-QSAR studies

The binding capacity of 10 flavonoids with okra seed protein (OSP) was studied by fluorescence spectroscopy. The structure of flavonoids had an obvious impact on binding performance. The binding ability of flavanone was lower than that of flavone, isoflavone and dihydrochalcone. The binding capacity of flavonoid glycoside was superior to that of the corresponding flavonoid aglycone. The binding ability was positively correlated with the number of phenolic hydroxyl groups on the B ring. The steric field and electrostatic field model constructed by 3D-QSAR method could well explain the above interaction behavior. Thermodynamic analysis suggested that the quenching mechanism of OSP caused by flavonoids was static quenching, and the binding-site number was 1. In addition, hydrogen bonding and van der Waals force dominated this interaction. The 3D and synchronous fluorescence spectra showed that there was no significant change in the polarity of the environment around tryptophan and tyrosine residues during binding.

Molecular Mechanisms and Applications of Polyphenol-Protein Complexes with Antioxidant Properties: A Review

Proteins have been extensively studied for their outstanding functional properties, while polyphenols have been shown to possess biological activities such as antioxidant properties. There is increasing clarity about the enhanced functional properties as well as the potential application prospects for the polyphenol-protein complexes with antioxidant properties. It is both a means of protein modification to provide enhanced antioxidant capacity and a way to deliver or protect polyphenols from degradation. This review shows that polyphenol-protein complexes could be formed via non-covalent or covalent interactions. The methods to assess the complex's antioxidant capacity, including scavenging free radicals and preventing lipid peroxidation, are summarized. The combination mode, the type of protein or polyphenol, and the external conditions will be the factors affecting the antioxidant properties of the complexes. There are several food systems that can benefit from the enhanced antioxidant properties of polyphenol-protein complexes, including emulsions, gels, packaging films, and bioactive substance delivery systems. Further validation of the cellular and in vivo safety of the complexes and further expansion of the types and sources of proteins and polyphenols for forming complexes are urgently needed to be addressed. The review will provide effective information for expanding applications of proteins and polyphenols in the food industry.

The phenolic profile of walnut meal protein isolate and interaction of phenolics with walnut protein

The aim of this study was to interpret the interaction of phenolics with walnut protein and determine their effects on protein functional properties. The phenolic profiles of walnut meal (WM) and walnut meal protein isolate (WMPI) were established using UPLC-Q-TOF-MS. A total of 132 phenolic compounds were detected, including 104 phenolic acids and 28 flavonoids. Phenolic compounds bound to protein via hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonds, and ionic bonds were identified in WMPI. They were also present as free forms, but the hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonds were the main non-covalent binding forces between phenolics and walnut proteins. The interaction mechanisms were further supported by the fluorescence spectra of WMPI with ellagic acid and quercitrin. In addition, changes in the functional properties of WMPI after removal of phenolic compounds were evaluated. Dephenolization significantly increased water holding capacity, oil absorptive capacity, foaming capacity, foaming stability, emulsifying stability index, and the in vitro gastric digestibility. However, in vitro gastric-intestinal digestibility was not significantly affected. These results provide insights into the interactions between walnut protein and phenolics, which indicates potential strategies for removing phenolics from walnut protein.

Impacts of Proanthocyanidin Binding on Conformational and Functional Properties of Decolorized Highland Barley Protein

The impacts of interaction between proanthocyanidin (PC) and decolorized highland barley protein (DHBP) at pH 7 and 9 on the functional and conformational changes in DHBP were investigated. It was shown that PC strongly quenched the intrinsic fluorescence of DHBP primarily through static quenching. PC and DHBP were mainly bound by hydrophobic interactions. Additionally, free sulfhydryl groups and surface hydrophobicity obviously decreased in DHBP after combining with PC. The zeta potential of DHBP-PC complexes at pH 7 increased significantly. A change in the structure of DHBP was caused by interactions with PC, resulting in an increase in the number of β-sheets, a decrease in the number of α-helixes, and a spectral shift in the amide Ⅱ band. Furthermore, the presence of PC enhanced the foaming properties and antioxidant activity of DHBP. Overall, this study suggests that DHBP-PC complexes at pH 7 could be designed as a stable additive, and illustrates the potential applications of DHBP-PC complexes in the food industry.

Binding of Licochalcone A to Whey Protein Enhancing Its Antioxidant Activity and Maintaining Its Antibacterial Activity

Incorporating LA into whey protein by forming whey protein isolate-LA (WPI-LA) and polymerized whey protein-LA (PWP-LA) complexes is a good way to maintain its bioactivity and improve its functional performance within food matrices. Herein, we found that WPI and PWP were able to interact with LA as suggested by multi-spectroscopy, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulations. The interaction between whey protein and LA was a spontaneous non-covalent binding process, while PWP had a higher affinity for LA than WPI, resulting from its more negatively binding free energy with LA. Hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces, and electrostatic interactions were responsible for WPI-LA interactions. Hydrophobic forces, van der Waals, and hydrogen bonds positively accounted for PWP-LA interactions. The antioxidant activity of LA was improved by complexation with whey proteins as identified by DPPH and ABTS. The antimicrobial efficiency of LA was partially screened by complexation with whey protein with MIC values increased by seven-fold compared to free LA but successfully recovered to its original efficiency upon isolating it from the complex. This work demonstrates the promising antioxidant and antibacterial activities of the whey protein-LA complex and provides a good candidate for developing a new class of natural functional ingredients for food systems.

Traditional Chinese medicine promotes bone regeneration in bone tissue engineering

Bone tissue engineering (BTE) is a promising method for the repair of difficult-to-heal bone tissue damage by providing three-dimensional structures for cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been introduced as an effective global medical program by the World Health Organization, comprising intricate components, and promoting bone regeneration by regulating multiple mechanisms and targets. This study outlines the potential therapeutic capabilities of TCM combined with BTE in bone regeneration. The effective active components promoting bone regeneration can be generally divided into flavonoids, alkaloids, glycosides, terpenoids, and polyphenols, among others. The chemical structures of the monomers, their sources, efficacy, and mechanisms are described. We summarize the use of compounds and medicinal parts of TCM to stimulate bone regeneration. Finally, the limitations and prospects of applying TCM in BTE are introduced, providing a direction for further development of novel and potential TCM.

Different interactions driving the binding of soy proteins (7S/11S) and flavonoids (quercetin/rutin): Alterations in the conformational and functional properties of soy proteins

The purpose of this research was to comparatively investigate the interactions between bioactive flavonoids (quercetin and rutin) and two predominant soy proteins (β-conglycinin and glycinin), and the structural and functional properties of their complexes. The binding affinities of quercetin/rutin toward 7S/11S were structure-dependent, in that rutin had a higher binding affinity than that of quercetin, and 11S exhibited higher affinity toward quercetin/rutin than that of 7S. The interactions in the 7S/11S-quercetin complexes were driven by van der Waals forces and hydrogen-bonding interactions, whereas the 7S/11S-rutin complexes exhibited hydrophobic interactions. Binding to quercetin or rutin altered the secondary structures (decrease in the α-helix and random coil contents and increase in the β-sheet content), decreased the surface hydrophobicity and thermal stability, and enhanced the antioxidant capacity of 7S and 11S. These findings provide valuable information that can facilitate the design of custom-tailored protein-flavonoid macromolecules.

pH-Dependent Binding Behavior of the α-Lactalbumin/Glycyrrhizic Acid Complex in Relation to Their Foaming Characteristics in Bulk

This work aimed to understand the relationships of the interaction mechanism and foaming characteristics of α-lactalbumin (α-La) and glycyrrhizic acid (GA) after acidic (pH 2.5) and neutral (pH 7.0) treatment. The critical aggregation concentration (CAC) of GA in the presence of α-La was 0.6 mM at pH 7.0, while it was 1.0 mM at pH 2.5. Also, in the presence of a GA concentration of 0-15.00 mM, more GA molecules combined onto the α-La surface at pH 2.5 than at pH 7.0, as evident from the binding isotherms. The turbidity and particle size of α-La/GA were greater in acidic solution than those under neutral conditions. This result could be interpreted by the formation of aggregates under higher GA concentration at pH 2.5. Meanwhile, the viscosity of the complex was higher at pH 2.5 than at pH 7.0 in the presence of 3.00-15.00 mM GA, as analyzed from the rheological properties. The foaming ability (FA) of α-La was significantly enhanced in the presence of 10.00 mM GA. Simultaneously, acidic solution could generate a more stable foaming system with a thicker film layer stabilized by the complex compared with neutral solution. These findings could be beneficial for developing a kind of acidic food-grade foaming agent.

Crystallization of Lactose-Protein Solutions in the Presence of Flavonoids

Lactose is commonly crystallized in the presence of whey proteins, forming co-crystals of lactose and proteins. This work hypothesized that flavonoids such as rutin or epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) could be incorporated into the lactose and protein co-crystal structure since flavonoids may interact with both lactose and proteins. The interactions between whey proteins and flavonoids were first studied. Then, lactose-protein solutions were crystallized with and without flavonoids, measuring the kinetic parameters of crystallization and characterizing the resulting crystals. The incorporation of flavonoids in lactose-protein co-crystals depended on the hydrophilic nature of flavonoids. The hydrophilic EGCG was scarcely enclosed in the crystal lattice of lactose and avoided the inclusion of whey proteins in the crystals. In contrast, the less water-soluble rutin interacted with whey proteins and lactose, leading to the formation of co-crystals containing lactose, protein, and a large concentration of rutin (3.468 ± 0.392 mg per 100 mg of crystals).

Investigation of binding interaction between bovine α-lactalbumin and procyanidin B2 by spectroscopic methods and molecular docking

The interactions between bovine α-lactalbumin and procyanidin B2 were fully investigated by spectroscopic methods and molecular docking. This study hypothesized that ALA could spontaneously interact with procyanidin B2 to form protein-based complex delivery carrier. Far UV CD and FTIR data demonstrated ALA's secondary structures were altered and intrinsic fluorescence quenching suggested ALA conformation was changed with procyanidin B2. Calorimetric technique illustrated ALA-procyanidin B2 complexation was a spontaneous and exothermic process with the number of binding site (n, 3.53) and the binding constant (K_b, 2.16 × 10⁴ M^-1). A stable nano-delivery system with ALA can be formed for encapsulating, stabilizing and delivering procyanidin B2. Molecular docking study further elucidated that hydrogen bonds dominated procyanidin B2 binding to ALA in a hydrophobic pocket. This study shows great potential in using ALA as protein-based nanocarriers for oral delivery of hydrophilic nutraceuticals, because procyanidin B2-loaded ALA complex delivery systems can be spontaneously formed.

Conformational dynamics of myoglobin in the presence of vitamin B12: A spectroscopic and in silico investigation

Myoglobin is an essential transport protein of heart and muscle tissues that acts as a local oxygen reservoir and a marker in different diseased conditions. On the other hand, Vitamin B12 is a vital nutrient that helps synthesize red blood cells, DNA, and proteins. To understand the ability of vitamin B12 to bind to the excess of myoglobin produced in the body under certain conditions (muscle injuries, severe trauma, etc.), it is essential to dig into the interaction between them. Therefore, the present study reports the binding interaction of vitamin B12 and myoglobin employing different spectroscopic and computational methods. The myoglobin's intrinsic fluorescence is quenched by vitamin B12 via static nature as observed from steady-state as well as time-resolved fluorescence measurements. The microenvironment of myoglobin's tryptophan residue gets affected, but there is no change observed in its α-helical content by vitamin B12 as seen from synchronous fluorescence and circular dichroism measurements. The probable binding of vitamin B12 on myoglobin was elucidated through molecular docking, and the interaction stability was studied by molecular dynamics simulation. The determination of vitamin B12's affinity to myoglobin and its effect on the conformational transitions of myoglobin might afford valuable insight for clinical pharmacology.

Whey protein-polyphenol conjugates and complexes: Production, characterization, and applications

Whey proteins are widely used as functional ingredients in various food applications owing to their emulsifying, foaming, and gelling properties. However, their functional attributes are limited in some applications because of the dependence of their performance on pH, mineral levels, and temperature. Several approaches have been investigated to enhance the functional performance of whey proteins by interacting them with polyphenols via covalent bonds (conjugates) or non-covalent bonds (complexes). The interaction of the polyphenols to the whey proteins alters their molecular characteristics, techno-functional attributes, and biological properties. Analytical methods for characterizing the properties of whey protein-polyphenol complexes and conjugates are highlighted, and a variety of potential applications within the food industry are discussed, including as antioxidants, emulsifiers, and foaming agents. Finally, areas for future research are highlighted.