Microbiological and process variability using biological indicators of inactivation (BIIs) based on Bacillus cereus spores of food and fish-based animal by-products to evaluate microwave heating in a pilot plant

Critical assessment of methods for measurement of temperature profiles and heat load history in microwave heating processes-A review

Limitations of microwave processing due to inhomogeneities of power input and energy absorption have been widely described. Over- and underheated product areas influence reproducibility, product quality, and possibly safety. Although a broad range of methods is available for temperature measurement and evaluation of time/temperature effects, none of them is sufficiently able to detect temperature differences and thermally induced effects within the product caused by inhomogeneous heating. The purpose of this review is to critically assess different methods of temperature measurement for their suitability for different microwave applications, namely metallic temperature sensors, thermal imaging, pyrometer measurement, fiber optic sensors, microwave radiometry, magnetic resonance imaging, liquid crystal thermography, thermal paper, and biological and chemical time-temperature indicators. These methods are evaluated according to their advantages and limitations, method characteristics, and potential interference with the electric field. Special attention is given to spatial resolution, accuracy, handling, and purpose of measurement, that is, development work or online production control. Differences of methods and examples of practical application and failure in microwave-assisted food processing are discussed with a special focus on microwave pasteurization and microwave-assisted drying. Based on this assessment, it is suggested that infrared cameras for measuring temperature distribution at the product surface and partially inside the product in combination with a chemical time/temperature indicator (e.g., Maillard reaction, generating heat-induced color variations, depending on local energy absorption) appear to be the most appropriate system for future practical application in microwave food process control, microwave system development, and product design. Reliable detection of inhomogeneous heating is a prerequisite to counteracte inhomogeneity by a targeted adjustment of process and product parameters in microwave applications.