Stabilization mechanisms of O/W emulsions by cellulose nanocrystals and sunflower protein

A comprehensive review of processing, functionality, and potential applications of lentil proteins in the food industry

There is a pressing need for sustainable sources of proteins to address the escalating food demands of the expanding global population, without damaging the environment. Lentil proteins offer a more sustainable alternative to animal-derived proteins (such as those from meat, fish, eggs, or milk). They are abundant, affordable, protein rich, nutritious, and functional, which makes them highly appealing as ingredients in the food, personal care, cosmetics, pharmaceutical and other industries. In this article, the chemical composition, nutritional value, and techno-functional properties of lentil proteins are reviewed. Then, recent advances on the extraction, purification, and modification of lentil proteins are summarized. Hurdles to the widespread utilization of lentil proteins in the food industry are highlighted, along with potential strategies to surmount these challenges. Finally, the potential applications of lentil protein in foods and beverages are discussed. The intention of this article is to offer an up-to-date overview of research on lentil proteins, addressing gaps in the knowledge related to their potential nutritional benefits and functional advantages for application within the food industry. This includes exploring the utilization of lentil proteins as nanocarriers for bioactive compounds, emulsifiers, edible inks for 3D food printing, meat analogs, and components of biodegradable packaging.

Almond protein as Pickering emulsion stabilizer: Impact of microgel fabrication method and pH on emulsion stability

We evaluated the ability of almond proteins to produce Pickering emulsions (EM) stabilized by microgels (MG) fabricated by three different methods (heat treatment-HT, crosslinking with transglutaminase-TG or calcium-CA), at two pH levels (pH 3 or 7). Compared to pH 7, acidic pH significantly denatured almond proteins (ellipticity ∼0 mdeg), decreased absolute zeta potential values (10.5 to 18.6 mV at pH 3 and - 24.6 to -32.6 mV at pH 7), and free thiol content (114.64-131.60 μmol SH/g protein at pH 3 and 129.46-148.17 μmol SH/g protein at pH 7 - except in CA-crosslinked microgels, p > 0.05). These changes led to larger microgel sizes (D3,2pH3: 26.3-39.5 μm vs. D3,2pH7: 5.9-9.0 μm) with lower polydispersity (SpanpH3: ∼ 1.94 vs. SpanpH7: 2.32, excluding CA-based samples). Consequently, the Turbiscan Stability Index (TSI) was higher in acidic conditions for all emulsions, except for the calcium-containing formulation (EM_CApH3), emphasizing the critical role of calcium binding in maintaining emulsion stability in acidic environments. Microgels prepared via the traditional heat treatment method produced emulsions with intermediate stability (TSI ranging from 3.4 % to 5.1 % at 28 days of storage). Conversely, TG-crosslinked microgels led to unstable emulsions at pH 3, likely due to the lowest zeta potential (+4.2 mV), whereas at pH 7, the greatest stability was attributed to bridging flocculation that created a stable gel-like structure. Indeed, emulsions with lower TSI (EM_CApH3 = 1.8 %, EM_CApH7 = 2.3 % and EM_TGpH7 = 1.0 %, at 28 days of storage) also exhibited higher elastic modulus (G') over frequency sweep, indicating that the strong elastic network was relevant for emulsion stability (up to 28 days). This study, for the first time, demonstrated the production of stable almond-based Pickering emulsions, with properties modulated by the pH and method used to fabricate the microgels.

Mechanochemical extraction of edible proteins from moor grass

Extracting edible nutrient-rich food fractions from unconventional sources, such as grass, could play a pivotal role in ensuring food security, bolstering economic prosperity, combating climate change, and enhancing overall quality of life. Current extraction techniques rely heavily on harsh chemicals, which not only degrade nutrients but can also substantially add to the cost of the process and make downstream separation challenging. In this study, we harnessed a mechanochemical process, liquid-assisted grinding (LAG) with and without Na2CO3, termed sodium carbonate assisted grinding (SAG), to extract the protein fraction from moor grass. These techniques were compared to the conventional alkaline extraction (AE) method. Unlike alkaline extraction, which solubilized over 70% of the material, the mechanochemical approach using Na2CO3 solubilized only 55% of the grass while still extracting the vast majority of the protein in the original grass feedstock. The protein fractions obtained from the SAG process had a similar amino acid profile to the core feedstock but also contained distinct characteristics over the other methods of extraction. FT-IR analysis, for example, identified the presence of an amide III band in the protein fractions obtained from the SAG process, indicating unique structural features that contribute to improved dispersibility, gelation properties, and water-in-water stability. Furthermore, the extracted moor grass protein contained a higher proportion of glutamic acid in comparison to other amino acids in the protein, which indicates a savoury umami (meaty) characteristic to the protein fraction. The protein extracted via SAG also exhibited good heat stability (139-214 °C), rendering them potentially suitable for baking applications. Additionally, coupling Na2CO3 with liquid assisted grinding not only removed the need for organic solvents and conventional heating but also reduced solvent consumption by 83%, compared with the typical alkaline extraction, thus simplifying the downstream processes necessary to produce food fractions. This study demonstrates the potential significance of mechanochemical extraction processes in unlocking nutrients from unconventional resources like grass, to produce the next generation of sustainable food ingredients.

Low gelatin concentration assisted cellulose nanocrystals stabilized high internal phase emulsion: The key role of interaction

Low concentrations of gelatin (0.02-0.20 wt%) were applied to regulate the surface and interface properties of CNC (0.50 wt%) by forming CNC/G complexes. As gelatin concentration increased from 0 to 0.20 wt%, the potential value of CNC/G gradually changed from -44.50 to -17.93 mV. Additionally, various gelatin concentrations led to micromorphology changes of CNC/G complexes, with the formation of particle interconnection at gelatin concentration of 0.10 wt%, followed by network structure and enhanced aggregation at gelatin concentration of 0.15 and 0.20 wt% respectively. The water contact angle (25.91°-80.23°) and interface adsorption capacity of CNC/G were improved due to hydrophobic group exposure of gelatin. When gelatin concentration exceeded 0.10 % at a fixed oil phase volume fraction (75 %), a high internal phase emulsion (HIPE) stabilized by CNC/G can be formed with a good storage stability. The rheological and microstructure results of HIPE confirmed that low gelatin concentration can assist CNC to form stable emulsion structure. Especially, the auxiliary stabilization mechanism of various gelatin concentration was different. CNC/G-0.10 % and CNC/G-0.15 % stabilized HIPE mainly depended on the enhanced interface adsorption and network structure, while CNC/G-0.20 % stabilized HIPE mainly relied on enhanced interface adsorption/accumulation due to weak electrostatic repulsion and aggregate granular morphology of CNC/G-0.20 %.

Enhancing the stability of O/W emulsions by the interactions of casein/carboxymethyl chitosan and its application in whole nutrient emulsions

The influence of Carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) on the emulsification stability mechanism of casein (CN) and its effects on the stability of whole nutrient emulsions were investigated. The complex solutions of CN and CMCS were prepared and the turbidity, ultraviolet (UV) absorption spectrum, fluorescence spectrum, circular dichroism (CD) spectrum, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrum, interfacial tension and microstructural observations were used to study the inter-molecular interaction of CMCS and CN. The effects of CMCS on the emulsion stability of CN were further analyzed by particle size, ζ-potential, instability index and rheological properties. Moreover, the accelerated stability of whole nutrient emulsions prepared by CMCS and CN was evaluated. The results revealed that CN-CMCS complexes were mainly formed by hydrogen bonding. The stability of the CN-CMCS composite emulsions were improved, as evidenced by the interfacial tension decreasing from 165.96 mN/m to 158.49 mN/m, the particle size decreasing from 45.85 μm to 12.98 μm, and the absolute value of the potential increasing from 29.8 mV to 33.5 mV. The stability of whole nutrient emulsion was also significantly enhanced by the addition of CN-CMCS complexes. Therefore, CN-CMCS complex could be served as a novel emulsifier to improve the stability of O/W emulsions.

Construction of spherical cellulose nanocrystals synergized with graphene oxide to stabilize Pickering emulsions

In this study, we prepared spherical cellulose nanocrystals (S-CNCs) and stabilized n-hexadecane Pickering emulsions in conjunction with graphene oxide (GO), exploring the interaction between S-CNCs and GO in the emulsions. Both S-CNCs and GO are amphiphilic and synergistically stabilize Pickering emulsions by adhering to the surface of oil droplets and within the emulsion space through hydrogen bonding. GO's two-dimensional sheets assemble into a 3D network structure, further improving the stability of Pickering emulsions. Consequently, the stability of Pickering emulsions can be adjusted by altering the S-CNCs/GO ratio, modifying the spatial distribution relationship of stabilizers in the emulsions. At an S-CNCs concentration of 1 g/L and a GO concentration of 3 g/L, the Pickering emulsion demonstrated excellent stability and exhibited no delamination after 31 days of storage. Thus, the S-CNCs/GO combination serves as an effective Pickering emulsion stabilizer, utilizing the synergistic effect between the two components.

Influence of Cellulose Nanofibers on the Behavior of Pickering Emulsions. Part 1. Microscopy and Startup Flow Test

The dispersibility of flexible polymer chains present at the emulsion's interface between the dispersed and continuous phase has obvious effects on rheology and dielectric properties of the whole emulsion. Cellulose nanofiber (CNF)-based Pickering emulsions are good systems to research these properties with respect to their microscopic phase structure, dielectric, and rheological properties by using CNF as a water-dispersible Pickering emulsifier, liquid paraffin as an oil phase, and didodecyldimethylammonium bromide (DDAB) as a cationic auxiliary surfactant. The CNF and DDAB contents were systematically varied while the water-to-paraffin oil ratio was kept constant to discern the influence of the Pickering emulsifiers. Polarized optical microscopic images reveal that the droplets tend to shrink at higher CNF content but grow bigger when increasing the DDAB content, which is proved by fluorescence analysis of the CNF dispersibility with varying DDAB content. The dielectric damping exhibits a minimum, whose value decreases with increasing DDAB and CNF content. Increasing the DDAB content promotes the solubilization of CNF in the aqueous phase, which will increase the overall viscosity and yield points. Similarly, a higher CNF content leads to a higher viscosity and yield point, but at high DDAB contents, the viscosity function exhibits an S-shape at intermediate CNF contents. To evaluate the results further, they were compared with CNF dispersions (without oil phase), which showed a surfactant effect slightly on maximum stress but strongly on yield stress τy, indicating that DDAB can promote the formation of a CNF network rather than the viscosity of the whole system. This paper provides information on how a systematical variation of the composition influences morphology and physico-chemical interactions as detected by broadband dielectric spectroscopy and rheological behavior.