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Ding L, Zhang CM. Occurrence, ecotoxicity and ecological risks of psychoactive substances in surface waters. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 926:171788. [PMID: 38499097 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Revised: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
Psychoactive substances (PSs) represent a subset of emerging contaminants. Their widespread production and utilization contribute to a growing ecological burden and risk on a global scale. Conventional wastewater treatment methods have proven insufficient in adequately removing psychoactive substances, leading to their occurrence in surface water ecosystems worldwide. As of present, however, a thorough understanding of their geographical prevalence and distribution patterns remains elusive. Further, in the existing literature, there is a scarcity of comprehensive overviews that systematically summarize the toxicity of various psychoactive substances towards aquatic organisms. Through summarizing almost 140 articles, the present study provides an overview of the sources, pollution status, and biotoxicity of psychoactive substances in surface waters, as well as an assessment of their ecological risks. Concentrations of several psychoactive substances in surface waters were found to be as high as hundreds or even thousands of ng·L-1. In parallel, accumulation of psychoactive substances in the tissues or organs of aquatic organisms was found to potentially cause certain adverse effects, including behavioral disorders, organ damage, and DNA changes. Oxidative stress was found to be a significant factor in the toxic effects of psychoactive substances on organisms. The application of the risk quotient approach indicated that psychoactive substances posed a medium to high risk in certain surface water bodies, as well as the need for sustained long-term attention and management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Ding
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
| | - Chong-Miao Zhang
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Center for Urban Alternative Water Resources Development, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China.
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Chen JY, Chen GY, Wu LM, Kuo CH, Weng TI. Impurities in over-the-counter pseudoephedrine leading to methcathinone detection in urine. Forensic Sci Int 2024; 356:111964. [PMID: 38368750 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2024.111964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024]
Abstract
Methcathinone, a psychoactive substance with stimulant properties, has raised concerns in recent years due to its presence in urine screenings, even among individuals with no history of drug abuse. To prevent misjudgment, this work aims to explore the source of methcathinone in urine. A total of 58 urine samples tested positive for methcathinone in the National Taiwan University Hospital cohort, with 27 linked to illicit drug use and 31 from individuals with no drug use history. Co-occurrence analysis revealed a strong association between methcathinone and over-the-counter cold medications containing pseudoephedrine or ephedrine. In an in vivo experiment, participants who consumed pseudoephedrine-containing drugs showed the presence of methcathinone in their urine, suggesting a connection between these substances. Additionally, tests on pharmaceutical products containing pseudoephedrine detected small amounts of methcathinone as impurities. The findings suggest that the presence of methcathinone in nonillicit drug users may be attributed to impurities in over-the-counter pseudoephedrine-containing medications. This raises concerns about potential misinterpretations of drug screening results and underscores the need for more comprehensive criteria for assessing drug use. This study contributes to our understanding of the origin of methcathinone in urine, which has implications for legal justice and drug screening practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ju-Yu Chen
- Forensic and Clinical Toxicology Center, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taiwan; Department and Graduate Institute of Forensic Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taiwan; School of Pharmacy, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taiwan
| | - Guan-Yuan Chen
- Forensic and Clinical Toxicology Center, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taiwan; Department and Graduate Institute of Forensic Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taiwan
| | | | - Ching-Hua Kuo
- School of Pharmacy, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taiwan
| | - Te-I Weng
- Forensic and Clinical Toxicology Center, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taiwan; Department and Graduate Institute of Forensic Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taiwan; Department of Emergency Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taiwan.
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Sabei FY, Khardali I, Al-Kasim MA, Shaheen ES, Oraiby M, Alamir A, David B, Alshahrani S, Jali AM, Attafi M, Albeishy MY, Attafi I. Disposition Kinetics of Cathinone and its Metabolites after Oral Administration in Rats. Curr Drug Metab 2024; 25:220-226. [PMID: 38752643 DOI: 10.2174/0113892002300638240513065512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2024] [Revised: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 09/25/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cathinone is a natural stimulant found in the Catha edulis plant. Its derivatives make up the largest group of new psychoactive substances. In order to better understand its effects, it is imperative to investigate its distribution, pharmacokinetics, and metabolic profile. However, the existing literature on cathinone remains limited. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to investigate the disposition kinetics and metabolic profile of cathinone and its metabolite cathine through a single oral dose of cathinone administration in rats. METHODS Cathinone and cathine concentrations were identified and quantified using ion trap liquid chromatography- mass spectrometry (LC-IT/MS). The metabolic profile in the serum, brain, lung, liver, kidney, and heart was analyzed at specific time points (0, 0.5, 2.5, 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 hours) using the ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF/MS) method. RESULTS The highest concentration of cathinone was found in the kidney (1438.6 μg/L, which gradually decreased to 1.97 within 48 h and disappeared after 72 h. Cathinone levels in the lungs, liver, and heart were 859, 798.9, and 385.8 μg/L, respectively, within half an hour. However, within 2.5 hours, these levels decreased to 608.1, 429.3, and 309.1 μg/L and became undetectable after 24 h. In the rat brain, cathinone levels dropped quickly and were undetectable within six hours, decreasing from 712.7 μg/L after 30 min. In the brain and serum, cathine reached its highest levels at 2.5 hours, while in other organs, it peaked at 0.5 hours, indicating slower conversion of cathinone to cathine in the brain and serum. CONCLUSION This study revealed a dynamic interplay between cathinone disposition kinetics and its impact on organ-specific metabolic profiles in rats. These results have significant implications for drug development, pharmacovigilance, and clinical practices involving cathinone. Investigating the correlation between the changes in biomarkers found in the brain and the levels of cathinone and cathine is essential for informed decision- making in medical practices and further research into the pharmacological properties of cathinone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fahad Y Sabei
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan, 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ibrahim Khardali
- Forensic Toxicology Services, Forensic and Janoub Al-Qunfudah Hospital, Ministry of Health, Jazan, 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohamed A Al-Kasim
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan, 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Magbool Oraiby
- Forensic Toxicology Services, Forensic and Janoub Al-Qunfudah Hospital, Ministry of Health, Jazan, 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmad Alamir
- Forensic Toxicology Services, Forensic and Janoub Al-Qunfudah Hospital, Ministry of Health, Jazan, 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Banji David
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan, 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Saeed Alshahrani
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan, 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulmajeed M Jali
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan, 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed Attafi
- Forensic Toxicology Services, Forensic and Janoub Al-Qunfudah Hospital, Ministry of Health, Jazan, 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed Y Albeishy
- Forensic Toxicology Services, Forensic and Janoub Al-Qunfudah Hospital, Ministry of Health, Jazan, 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ibraheem Attafi
- Forensic Toxicology Services, Forensic and Janoub Al-Qunfudah Hospital, Ministry of Health, Jazan, 45142, Saudi Arabia
- Janoub Al-Qunfudah Hospital, Ministry of Health, Al Qunfudhah, Saudi Arabia
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Shaikhain G, Gaballah M, Alhazmi A, Khardali I, Hakami A, Oraiby M, Alharbi S, Tobaigi M, Ghalibi M, Fageeh M, Albeishy M, Attafi I. Fatalities Involving Khat in Jazan, Saudi Arabia, 2018 to 2021. TOXICS 2023; 11:506. [PMID: 37368606 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11060506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
Interpreting fatalities involving khat is challenging due to a lack of data on cathinone and cathine reference concentrations in postmortem tissues. This study investigated the autopsy findings and toxicological results of fatalities involving khat in Saudi Arabia's Jazan region from 1 January 2018 to 31 December 2021. All confirmed cathine and cathinone results in postmortem blood, urine, brain, liver, kidney, and stomach samples were recorded and analyzed. Autopsy findings and the manner and cause of death of the deceased were assessed. Saudi Arabia's Forensic Medicine Center investigated 651 fatality cases over four years. Thirty postmortem samples were positive for khat's active constituents, cathinone and cathine. The percentage of fatalities involving khat was 3% in 2018 and 2019 and increased from 4% in 2020 to 9% in 2021, when compared with all fatal cases. They were all males ranging in age from 23 to 45. Firearm injuries (10 cases), hanging (7 cases), road traffic accident (2 cases), head injury (2 cases), stab wounds (2 cases), poisoning (2 cases), unknown (2 cases), ischemic heart disease (1 case), brain tumor (1 case), and choking (1 case) were responsible for the deaths. In total, 57% of the postmortem samples tested positive for khat only, while 43% tested positive for khat with other drugs. Amphetamine is the drug most frequently involved. The average cathinone and cathine concentrations were 85 and 486 ng/mL in the blood, 69 and 682 ng/mL in the brain, 64 and 635 ng/mL in the liver, and 43 and 758 ng/mL in the kidneys, respectively. The 10th-90th percentiles of blood concentrations of cathinone and cathine were 18-218 ng/mL and 222-843 ng/mL, respectively. These findings show that 90% of fatalities involving khat had cathinone concentrations greater than 18 ng/mL and cathine concentrations greater than 222 ng/mL. According to the cause of death, homicide was the most common fatality involving khat alone (77%). More research is required, especially toxicological and autopsy findings, to determine the involvement of khat in crimes and fatalities. This study may help forensic scientists and toxicologists investigate fatalities involving khat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghassan Shaikhain
- Forensic Toxicology Services, Forensic Medical Center, Ministry of Health, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed Gaballah
- Forensic Medicine Services, Forensic Medical Center, Ministry of Health, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmad Alhazmi
- Forensic Medicine Services, Forensic Medical Center, Ministry of Health, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ibrahim Khardali
- Forensic Toxicology Services, Forensic Medical Center, Ministry of Health, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmad Hakami
- Forensic Medicine Services, Forensic Medical Center, Ministry of Health, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Magbool Oraiby
- Forensic Toxicology Services, Forensic Medical Center, Ministry of Health, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sultan Alharbi
- Forensic Toxicology Services, Forensic Medical Center, Ministry of Health, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammad Tobaigi
- Forensic Medicine Services, Forensic Medical Center, Ministry of Health, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed Ghalibi
- Forensic Medicine Services, Forensic Medical Center, Ministry of Health, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohsen Fageeh
- Forensic Toxicology Services, Forensic Medical Center, Ministry of Health, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed Albeishy
- Forensic Toxicology Services, Forensic Medical Center, Ministry of Health, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ibraheem Attafi
- Forensic Toxicology Services, Forensic Medical Center, Ministry of Health, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
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Alamir AM, Jeraiby MA, Korashy HM, Shaheen ES, Attafi MA, Oraiby ME, Hakami AM, Albeishy MY, Khardali IA, Juraybi IA, Alobaida AA, Attafi IM. Cathine and cathinone disposition kinetics and neurotransmitter profile in several organs of rats exposed to a single dose of Catha edulis (Vahl) Forssk. ex Endl. extract. Drug Metab Pers Ther 2023:dmdi-2022-0154. [PMID: 36883753 DOI: 10.1515/dmpt-2022-0154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 03/09/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Catha edulis (Vahl) Forssk. ex Endl. (Khat) is a stimulant plant that contains cathine and cathinone, which its abuses induce euphoria, alertness, and motor activity. Since the toxicokinetics of these substances remain unclear, this study was carried out to investigate the disposition kinetics of cathine and cathinone, the neurotransmitter profile, following a single dose of C. edulis extract in rats. METHODS Twenty-four adult male Wistar albino rats (250-300 g) were randomly selected and divided into six groups of four rats each. All groups received a single oral dose of 2,000 mg/kg body weight, and blood and tissue samples from the brain, lung, heart, liver, and kidney were obtained at intervals of 0.5, 1, 2.5, 5, 12, and 24 h. The cathine and cathinone concentrations were identified and quantified using ion trap ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC-IT/MS). The neurotransmitter profile was detected using the quadrupole time of flight UPLC-QTOF/MS method. RESULTS The lung, liver, and heart tissues attained the highest levels of cathine, while the highest level of cathinone was determined in the heart. Cathine and cathinone concentrations in the blood and heart peaked at 0.5 h. The concentrations peaked in the brain 2.5 h later, indicating that the heart had an immediate effect, whereas the brain had a longer-lasting one. They have longer half-lives (2.68 and 5.07 h, respectively) and may remain in the brain for longer durations (3.31 and 2.31 h, respectively). The neurotransmitters epinephrine, dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin were detected in a delayed, prolonged and organ-specific manner. CONCLUSIONS Cathine and cathinone were deposited in considerable concentrations in all tissues analyzed, with the highest Cmax in the lung and Tmax in the heart tissues but not in the brain. In addition, neurotransmitters such as adrenaline, dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin were differentially detected in all tested samples in a organ-specific fashion. More study is needed to identify cathine and cathinone's effects on neurotransmitter profiles. Nevertheless, these findings provided a further basis for experimental, clinical, and forensic investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad M Alamir
- Poison Control and Medical Forensic Chemistry Center, Jazan Health Affairs, Ministry of Health, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed A Jeraiby
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hesham M Korashy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | | | - Mohammad A Attafi
- Poison Control and Medical Forensic Chemistry Center, Jazan Health Affairs, Ministry of Health, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Magbool E Oraiby
- Poison Control and Medical Forensic Chemistry Center, Jazan Health Affairs, Ministry of Health, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed M Hakami
- Poison Control and Medical Forensic Chemistry Center, Jazan Health Affairs, Ministry of Health, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed Y Albeishy
- Poison Control and Medical Forensic Chemistry Center, Jazan Health Affairs, Ministry of Health, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ibrahim A Khardali
- Poison Control and Medical Forensic Chemistry Center, Jazan Health Affairs, Ministry of Health, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ismail A Juraybi
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abeer A Alobaida
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ibraheem M Attafi
- Poison Control and Medical Forensic Chemistry Center, Jazan Health Affairs, Ministry of Health, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
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Liu SY, Yu WJ, Wang YR, Shao XT, Wang DG. Tracing consumption patterns of stimulants, opioids, and ketamine in China by wastewater-based epidemiology. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:16754-16766. [PMID: 33394399 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-12035-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Illicit drug use has long been a key issue of international concern, and the true situation is unknown to the relevant authorities. To develop a profile of comprehensive consumption patterns of illicit drugs in China, data from 34 wastewater treatment plants in 25 cities were collected to analyze four classes of drugs, including amphetamine-type stimulants, opioids, ketamine, and cocaine. They were identified and quantified in samples using methods based on gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. According to the wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) approach, an analysis of the consumption pattern was performed regarding per inhabitant consumption based on the revised metabolic rate. The consumption quantity of illicit drug and precursor was divided into four categories based on statistical difference analyses: methamphetamine and ephedrine (precursor) were the predominant drugs in the first category, followed by ketamine and heroin in the second category, methcathinone and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in the third category, and cocaine and methadone in the fourth category. There were distinctive spatial patterns: heroin and cocaine consumption was higher in Southern China than in Northern China, heroin consumption was higher in Western China than in Eastern China, and the consumption of each drug differed across seven regions of China, especially with ephedrine and methcathinone consumption higher in North China; heroin consumption higher in Southwest, Central, and Northwest China; and ketamine and MDMA consumption higher in East, South, and Central China. Compared with findings in previous studies, there were temporal patterns, in which ketamine consumption presented a downward trend but heroin remained stable. Based on correlation analyses, there were the polydrug abuse patterns between heroin and cocaine, methcathinone and ketamine, and cocaine and MDMA. In general, this study based on WBE provides a comprehensive evaluation of drug consumption in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si-Yu Liu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, China
| | - Wen-Jing Yu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, China
| | - Yi-Ru Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, China
| | - Xue-Ting Shao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, China
| | - De-Gao Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, China.
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Poltorak L, Rudnicki K, Kolivoška V, Sebechlebská T, Krzyczmonik P, Skrzypek S. Electrochemical study of ephedrine at the polarized liquid-liquid interface supported with a 3D printed cell. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 402:123411. [PMID: 32711385 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we have examined an electrochemical behavior of the ephedrine at the polarized liquid-liquid interface (water/1,2-dichloroethane). In this respect, we first designed and then 3D printed polyamide-based electrochemical cell that was used as the liquid-liquid interface support during electroanalytical measurements. The protonated ephedrine undergoes a reversible ion transfer reaction with the standard Galvani potential difference equal to +0.269 V. This value was used to calculate the water - 1,2-dichloroethane logP equal to -4.6. Ion transfer voltammetry was used to build the calibration curve and allowed for the ephedrine detection from concentration equal to 20 μM. By varying the pH of the aqueous phase from 2 up to 12 we were able to plot the ion partition diagram that was further analyzed and provided several pharmacochemical information. To further push this work towards practical utility, we have formulated the artificial urine and studied the interfacial behavior of all its components at the polarized liquid-liquid interface. Ephedrine detection from real spiked urine samples was also performed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukasz Poltorak
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, 91-403 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Konrad Rudnicki
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, 91-403 Lodz, Poland
| | - Viliam Kolivoška
- J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry of The Czech Academy of Sciences, v.v.i., Dolejškova 3, 18223 Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Táňa Sebechlebská
- J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry of The Czech Academy of Sciences, v.v.i., Dolejškova 3, 18223 Prague, Czech Republic; Department of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská Dolina, Ilkovičova 6, 84215 Bratislava 4, Slovakia
| | - Paweł Krzyczmonik
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, 91-403 Lodz, Poland
| | - Sławomira Skrzypek
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, 91-403 Lodz, Poland
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Willson C. Sympathomimetic amine compounds and hepatotoxicity: Not all are alike-Key distinctions noted in a short review. Toxicol Rep 2018; 6:26-33. [PMID: 30581759 PMCID: PMC6288410 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2018.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Revised: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Sympathomimetic amine compounds are often pooled together and incorrectly assumed to be interchangeable with respect to potential adverse effects. A brief and specific review of sympathomimetic compounds and one instance (i.e., hepatotoxicity) where these compounds have been improperly grouped together is covered. A review of the proposed mechanisms through which known hepatotoxic sympathomimetic agents (e.g., 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine or MDMA, methamphetamine and amphetamine) cause liver injury, along with a corresponding review of in vitro data, interventional data, animal model studies and observational data allow for a comparison/contrast of different agents and reveals a lack of potential toxicity for some agents (e.g., pseudoephedrine, phenylephrine, ephedrine, 1,3-dimethylamylamine, phentermine) in this broad category. Data show that compounds within the broad group of sympathomimetics display divergent pharmacological and toxicological profiles and can be clearly distinguished with respect to liver injury. These data serve as a reminder to clinicians and others, that even small structural differences between molecules can lead to drastically different pharmacological/toxicological profiles and that one should not assume that all sympathomimetic agents are hepatotoxic. Such assumptions could lead to diagnostic errors and incorrect or insufficient treatment.
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Chang CW, Hsu SY, Huang GQ, Hsu MC. Ephedra alkaloid contents of Chinese herbal formulae sold in Taiwan. Drug Test Anal 2017; 10:350-356. [PMID: 28444836 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2017] [Revised: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Consumption of Ephedra alkaloids is prohibited in-competition by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). In Taiwan, colds are often treated with Chinese herbal formulae containing Herba Ephedrae. We screened products sold in Taiwan and preliminarily assessed their relationships with WADA threshold violations. Fifty-six concentrated powder products, including 19 Chinese herbal formulae that contained Herba Ephedrae, were collected. The content of Ephedra alkaloids, namely ephedrine (E), methylephedrine (ME), norpseudoephedrine (NPE; cathine), pseudoephedrine (PE), and norephedrine (NE; phenylpropanolamine), was determined using a validated high-performance liquid chromatography method. The results revealed that the phenotypic indicators of the collected products, E/PE and E/total ratios, were 1.52-4.70 and 0.49-0.72, respectively, indicating that the Herba Ephedrae species in these products was probably E. sinica or E. equisetina, but not E. intermedia. The contents of E, ME, NPE, PE, and NE and the total alkaloid contents in the daily doses of the products were 0.45-34.97, 0.05-4.87, 0.04-3.61, 0.15-12.09, and 0.01-2.00 mg and 0.68-53.64 mg, respectively. The alkaloid contents followed a relatively consistent order (E > PE > ME ≈ NPE > NE), even for products from different manufacturers. We calculated that single doses of 50.0% and 3.6% of the products would result in the WADA thresholds of E and NPE being exceeded, respectively. Our data provide critical information for athletes and medical personnel, who should be wary of using complex Chinese herbal formulae in addition to over-the-counter products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Wei Chang
- School of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Szu-Yun Hsu
- Graduate Institute of Sports Science, National Taiwan Sport University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Guan-Qian Huang
- Graduate Institute of Sports Science, National Taiwan Sport University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Mei-Chich Hsu
- Graduate Institute of Sports Science, National Taiwan Sport University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Department of Sports Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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Xu J, Yan R. Determination of the Metabolite of Ephedrine, 4-Hydroxyephedrine, by LC–MS-MS in Rat Urine and Its Application in Excretion Profiles After Oral Administration ofEphedra sinica Stapfand ProcessingEphedra sinica Stapf. J Chromatogr Sci 2016; 55:162-165. [PMID: 27733484 DOI: 10.1093/chromsci/bmw165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2015] [Revised: 03/24/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jie Xu
- Department of Foreign Languages, Chaohu University, Chaohu 238000, P.R. China
| | - Rui Yan
- College of Pharmacy, Liaoning University, 66 Chongshan Road (M), Shenyang 110036, P.R. China
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Detection and elimination profile of cathinone in equine after norephedrine (Propalin®) administration using a validated liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:9711-22. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7073-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2013] [Revised: 05/04/2013] [Accepted: 05/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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12
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Reid MJ, Derry L, Thomas KV. Analysis of new classes of recreational drugs in sewage: Synthetic cannabinoids and amphetamine-like substances. Drug Test Anal 2013; 6:72-9. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2012] [Revised: 01/03/2013] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Malcolm J. Reid
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA); Gaustadalleen 21 0349 Oslo Norway
| | - Lisa Derry
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA); Gaustadalleen 21 0349 Oslo Norway
- Department of Forensic Science & Drug Monitoring, King's College London; School of Biomedical and Health Sciences; Franklin-Wilkins Building, 150 Stamford Street London SE1 9NH UK
| | - Kevin V. Thomas
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA); Gaustadalleen 21 0349 Oslo Norway
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13
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Accelerating analysis for metabolomics, drugs and their metabolites in biological samples using multidimensional gas chromatography. Bioanalysis 2011; 1:367-91. [PMID: 21083173 DOI: 10.4155/bio.09.28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Gas chromatography (GC) with mass spectrometry (MS) is one of the great enabling analytical tools available to the chemical and biochemical analyst for the measurement of volatile and semi-volatile compounds. From the analysis result, it is possible to assess progress in chemical reactions, to monitor environmental pollutants in a wide range of soil, water or air samples, to determine if an athlete or horse trainer has contravened doping laws, or if crude oil has migrated through subsurface rock to a reservoir. Each of these scenarios and samples has an associated implementation method for GC-MS. However, few samples and the associated interpretation of data is as complex or important as biochemical sample analysis for trace drugs or metabolites. Improving the analysis in both the GC and MS domains is a continual search for better separation, selectivity and sensitivity. Multidimensional methods are playing important roles in providing quality data to address the needs of analysts.
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14
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Barroso O, Goudreault D, Carbó Banús ML, Ayotte C, Mazzoni I, Boghosian T, Rabin O. Determination of urinary concentrations of pseudoephedrine and cathine after therapeutic administration of pseudoephedrine-containing medications to healthy subjects: implications for doping control analysis of these stimulants banned in sport. Drug Test Anal 2011; 4:320-9. [PMID: 21548139 DOI: 10.1002/dta.291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2011] [Revised: 03/16/2011] [Accepted: 03/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Due to its stimulatory effects on the central nervous system, and its structural similarity to banned stimulants such as ephedrine and methamphetamine, pseudoephedrine (PSE) at high doses is considered as an ergogenic aid for boosting athletic performance. However, the status of PSE in the International Standard of the Prohibited List as established under the World Anti-Doping Code has changed over the years, being prohibited until 2003 at a urinary cut-off value of 25 µg/ml, and then subsequently removed from the Prohibited List during the period 2004-2009. The re-consideration of this position by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) List Expert Group has led to the reintroduction of PSE in the Prohibited List in 2010. In this manuscript, we present the results of two WADA-sponsored clinical studies on the urinary excretion of PSE and its metabolite cathine (CATH) following the oral administration of different PSE formulations to healthy individuals at therapeutic regimes. On this basis, the current analytical urinary threshold for the detection of PSE as a doping agent in sport has been conservatively established at 150 µg/ml
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Affiliation(s)
- Osquel Barroso
- Science Department, World Anti-doping Agency (WADA), Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
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15
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Tang J, Zhou X, Ji H, Xu N, Liu H, Lan G, Wu L. Simultaneous Ion-Pair LC Analysis of Ephedrine and Pseudoephedrine in Rat Liver Microsomal Incubations: Application to In-Vitro Metabolism. Chromatographia 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s10337-011-1950-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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16
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Martin AN, Farquar GR, Steele PT, Jones AD, Frank M. Use of Single Particle Aerosol Mass Spectrometry for the Automated Nondestructive Identification of Drugs in Multicomponent Samples. Anal Chem 2009; 81:9336-42. [DOI: 10.1021/ac901208h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Audrey N. Martin
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave., Livermore, California 94550, and Departments of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology and Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824
| | - George R. Farquar
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave., Livermore, California 94550, and Departments of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology and Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824
| | - Paul T. Steele
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave., Livermore, California 94550, and Departments of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology and Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824
| | - A. Daniel Jones
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave., Livermore, California 94550, and Departments of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology and Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824
| | - Matthias Frank
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave., Livermore, California 94550, and Departments of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology and Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824
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17
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The Relevance of the Urinary Concentration of Ephedrines in Anti-Doping Analysis: Determination of Pseudoephedrine, Cathine, and Ephedrine After Administration of Over-the-Counter Medicaments. Ther Drug Monit 2009; 31:520-6. [DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0b013e3181ac6006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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18
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Deventer K, Van Eenoo P, Baele G, Pozo OJ, Van Thuyne W, Delbeke FT. Interpretation of urinary concentrations of pseudoephedrine and its metabolite cathine in relation to doping control. Drug Test Anal 2009; 1:209-13. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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19
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Wang L, Feng F, Wang XQ, Zhu L. Influences of urinary pH on the pharmacokinetics of three amphetamine-type stimulants using a new high-performance liquid chromatographic method. J Pharm Sci 2009; 98:728-38. [PMID: 18481797 DOI: 10.1002/jps.21438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
A simple and sensitive high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) method after precolumn derivatization with 9,10-anthraquinone-2-sulfonyl chloride (ASC) has been developed and validated for the analysis of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) in biological samples. Based on this method, we investigated the impact of urinary pH on the pharmacokinetics of phenylpropanolamine (PPA), pseudoephedrine (PSE), and fenfluramine (FEN) in rats. The drugs were orally administrated to rats, which had been induced, by repeated oral doses of ammonium chloride or sodium bicarbonate, to excrete urine at lower or higher pH than the normal value, respectively. Results revealed that as the increase of urinary pH, the mean elimination half-life (t(1/2)), the mean residence time (MRT) and the area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC) of PPA, PSE, and FEN were greatly raised, while the total plasma clearance (CL/F) decreased considerably. These findings have important clinical implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
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20
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Porto RMDO, Pérez AR, Vidal MTC, Fraga MG. Qualitative confirmation procedure for ephedrines as acetonide derivatives in doping urine samples by gas chromatography/electron ionization mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2009; 23:249-257. [PMID: 19072865 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.3872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Ephedrines are sympathomimetic amines which have central nervous system stimulating properties and, for this reason, some of them are forbidden in sport by the World Antidoping Agency (WADA). They are screened and quantitated in urine by several published techniques and confirmed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). In this paper, a simple and easy confirmation procedure for norpseudoephedrine, norephedrine, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine in human urine by GC/electron ionization (EI)-MS is described. After the addition of diphenylamine as internal standard, a liquid-liquid extraction procedure under alkaline conditions with tert-butyl methyl ether was applied to the samples. The analytes were derivatized with acetone and pyridine to form the correspondent oxazolidine derivatives (acetonide). The EI mass spectra of all the studied substances have many diagnostic ions with relative abundance in accordance with WADA requirements and show great structural information content. The fragmentation of theses derivatives is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodny Montes de Oca Porto
- Instituto de Medicina del Deporte, Laboratorio Antidoping. Calle 100 y Aldabó, CP 10800, Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba.
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21
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The rush to adrenaline: drugs in sport acting on the beta-adrenergic system. Br J Pharmacol 2008; 154:584-97. [PMID: 18500380 DOI: 10.1038/bjp.2008.164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Athletes attempt to improve performance with drugs that act on the beta-adrenergic system directly or indirectly. Of three beta-adrenoceptor (AR) subtypes, the beta(2)-AR is the main target in sport; they have bronchodilator and anabolic actions and enhance anti-inflammatory actions of corticosteroids. Although demonstrable in animal experiments and humans, there is little evidence that these properties can significantly improve performance in trained athletes. Their actions may also be compromised by receptor desensitization and by common, naturally occurring receptor mutations (polymorphisms) that can influence receptor signalling and desensitization properties in individuals. Indirectly acting agents affect release and reuptake of noradrenaline and adrenaline, thereby influencing all AR subtypes including the three beta-ARs. These agents can have potent psychostimulant effects that provide an illusion of better performance that does not usually translate into improvement in practice. Amphetamines and cocaine also have considerable potential for cardiac damage. beta-AR antagonists (beta-blockers) are used in sports that require steadiness and accuracy, such as archery and shooting, where their ability to reduce heart rate and muscle tremor may improve performance. They have a deleterious effect in endurance sports because they reduce physical performance and maximum exercise load. Recent studies have identified that many beta-AR antagonists not only block the actions of agonists but also activate other (mitogen-activated PK) signalling pathways influencing cell growth and fate. The concept that many compounds previously regarded as 'blockers' may express their own spectrum of pharmacological properties has potentially far-reaching consequences for the use of drugs both therapeutically and illicitly.
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22
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de Oca Porto RM, Pérez AR, Correa Vidal MT. Electron ionization mass spectra of ephedrines in a doping confirmatory procedure: a curious migration of the trimethylsilyl group in the N-acetyl-O-trimethylsilyl derivatives. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2007; 21:1871-6. [PMID: 17523214 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.3028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Ephedrines have central nervous system stimulating properties and, for this reason, some of them are forbidden in sport by the World Antidoping Agency (WADA). They are screened and quantitated in urine by several published techniques and confirmed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). In this paper, a simple confirmation procedure for norpseudoephedrine, norephedrine, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine in human urine by GC/electron ionization (EI)-MS is described. After the addition of levallorphane as internal standard, a liquid-liquid extraction procedure under alkaline conditions with tert-butyl methyl ether was applied to the samples. The analytes were derivatized with acetic acid anhydride and N-methyl-N-trimethylsilyltrifluoroacetamide to form N-acetyl-O-trimethylsilyl derivatives. The EI mass spectra of all the studied substances have many diagnostic ions with relative abundance in accordance with WADA requirements and show great structural information content. A curious migration of the trimethylsilyl group is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodny Montes de Oca Porto
- Instituto de Medicina del Deporte, Laboratorio Antidoping, Calle 100 y Aldabó, CP 10800, Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba.
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23
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Martin AN, Farquar GR, Jones AD, Frank M. The non-destructive identification of solid over-the-counter medications using single particle aerosol mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2007; 21:3561-3568. [PMID: 17935106 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.3248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Single over-the-counter medication tablets were analyzed in real time using Single Particle Aerosol Mass Spectrometry (SPAMS). Dual-polarity time-of-flight mass spectra were obtained for micrometer-sized single particles dislodged from a single tablet without destroying the shape or markings of each tablet. The solid tablet was placed in a modified-top glass vial and shaken to dislodge and introduce micrometer-sized particles into the SPAMS system. Unique spectra from these particles were obtained in less than 1 s for single tablets of aspirin, ibuprofen, pseudoephedrine, phenylephrine, loratadine, or diphenhydramine. The signals obtained allowed the non-destructive identification of an individual tablet in seconds. SPAMS presents an ideal system for high-throughput analysis of solid drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey N Martin
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
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