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Hachem M, Mizouni R, Alawadhi IM, Altamimi MJ. Digital forensic intelligence for illicit drug analysis in forensic investigations. iScience 2023; 26:108023. [PMID: 37860773 PMCID: PMC10582396 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.108023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
In forensic investigations, forensic intelligence is required for illicit drug profiling in order to allow police officers and law enforcements to recognize crime developments and adjust their actions. In the present paper, we propose a novel framework for Digital Forensic Drug Intelligence (DFDI) by fusing digital forensic and drug profiling data through intelligent cycles, where a targeted and iterative collection of evidence from diverse sources is a core step in the process of drug profiling. Drug profiling data combined with digital data from seized devices collected, examined, and analyzed will allow authorities to generate valuable information about illicit drug trafficking routes and manufacturing. Such data can be stored in seized illicit drug databases to build in an intelligent way, all findings, hypotheses and recommendations, allowing law enforcement to make decisions. Our framework will potentially provide a better understanding of profiling, trafficking and distribution of illicit drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayssa Hachem
- Department of Chemistry and Healthcare Engineering Innovation Center, Khalifa University of Sciences and Technology, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 127788, United Arab Emirates
| | - Rabeb Mizouni
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Khalifa University of Sciences and Technology, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 127788, United Arab Emirates
| | | | - Mohamad J. Altamimi
- Dubai Police, General Department of Forensic Science and Criminology, Drug Surveillance Center, Drug Profiling Section, Dubai P.O. Box 1493, United Arab Emirates
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Ahmed R, Altamimi MJ, Hachem M. State-of-the-Art Analytical Approaches for Illicit Drug Profiling in Forensic Investigations. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27196602. [PMID: 36235138 PMCID: PMC9571531 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27196602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In forensic chemistry, when investigating seized illicit drugs, the profiling or chemical fingerprinting of drugs is considered fundamental. This involves the identification, quantitation and categorization of drug samples into groups, providing investigative leads such as a common or different origin of seized samples. Further goals of drug profiling include the elucidation of synthetic pathways, identification of adulterants and impurities, as well as identification of a drug's geographic origin, specifically for plant-derived exhibits. The aim of this state-of-art-review is to present the traditional and advanced analytical approaches commonly followed by forensic chemists worldwide for illicit drug profiling. We discussed numerous methodologies for the physical and chemical profiling of organic and inorganic impurities found in illicit drug. Applications of powerful spectroscopic and chromatographic tools for illicit drug profiling including isotope-Ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), gas chromatography-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC-IRMS), ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC), thin layer chromatography (TLC), liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) were discussed. Altogether, the techniques covered in this paper to profile seized illicit drugs could aid forensic chemists in selecting and applying a suitable method to extract valuable profiling data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reem Ahmed
- Department of Chemistry, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 127788, United Arab Emirates
| | - Mohamad J. Altamimi
- Dubai Police, General Department of Forensic Science and Criminology, Forensic Chemistry Section, Dubai P.O. Box 1493, United Arab Emirates
| | - Mayssa Hachem
- Department of Chemistry and Healthcare Engineering Innovation Center, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 127788, United Arab Emirates
- Correspondence:
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Thomas O, Belunis A, Alibozek R, Hondrogiannis EM. Dokha brand differentiation by elemental analysis measured by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. J Forensic Sci 2022; 67:1786-1800. [PMID: 35593454 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.15064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2022] [Revised: 04/30/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Dokha is a tobacco product commonly used in Middle Eastern and Northern African regions. It is available in three blends purportedly corresponding to the degree of "buzz" experienced by the user. The "buzz" has been linked in part to nicotine levels, which are higher than those found in cigarettes and is believed to be the reason dokha is abused as a "legal high." There have been reports of seizure activity from dokha users, and elevated concentrations of toxic metals have been measured in dokha tobacco. The purpose of this work was to determine whether we could use dokha's elemental content, measured by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry, to link dokha back to its brand. This could aid investigators in identifying brands and/or distribution routes in the case of adverse effects resulting from dokha use. We measured the concentrations of Mg, K, Mn, Ni, Cu, Rb, Sr, and Ba in Medwakh, Nirvana, Scorpion, Enjoy, Kingdom, and Iconic dokha brands. Analysis of variance revealed statistical differences in concentrations of elements among groups. Discriminant function analysis (using leave-one-out classification) was 58.3% successful at differentiating brands. Enjoy dokha was the most, and Kingdom dokha the least, correctly classified among groups. Attempts to further link dokha blends back to light, medium, and heavy blends were less successful. These results indicate potential for using elemental content to discriminate among dokha brands. Our data may also help to understand the degree of additional processing and/or adulteration of dokha products available to users in the United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orianna Thomas
- Master of Science, Forensic Science Program, Department of Chemistry, Towson University, Towson, Maryland, USA
| | - Amanda Belunis
- Master of Science, Forensic Science Program, Department of Chemistry, Towson University, Towson, Maryland, USA
| | - Rachel Alibozek
- Master of Science, Forensic Science Program, Department of Chemistry, Towson University, Towson, Maryland, USA
| | - Ellen M Hondrogiannis
- Master of Science, Forensic Science Program, Department of Chemistry, Towson University, Towson, Maryland, USA
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Popovic A, Morelato M, Baechler S, De Grazia A, Tahtouh M, Roux C, Beavis A. Understanding Australian methylamphetamine drug markets through relational, temporal and spatial analyses. Drug Test Anal 2021; 14:481-495. [PMID: 34655507 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
In the area of illicit drugs, forensic case data have proven effective at detecting links between seizures and providing greater insights into illicit drug markets. This research explored the application of mathematical and statistical techniques to several chemical profiles of Australian methylamphetamine seizures. The main aim was to create and deliver a method that would expand the use of illicit drug profiling for strategic intelligence purposes, contributing to the fight against illicit drug trafficking. The use of comparison metrics and clustering analysis to determine links between existing illicit drug specimens and subsequent new specimens was evaluated and automated. Relational, temporal and spatial analyses were subsequently used to gain an insight into illicit drug markets. Relational analysis identified clusters of seizures central to the network. Temporal analysis then provided insights into the behaviour of distribution markets, specifically the emergence and extinction of certain clusters of seizures over time. Spatial analysis aided the understanding of the inter-jurisdictional nature of illicit drug markets. These analyses allowed for the generation of strategic intelligence relating to when and where the Australian methylamphetamine illicit drug market was the most active. Additionally, the strategic level trends identified clusters of seizures that were worth investigating further. These clusters were explored through a case study, which exploited additional chemical profiling data to provide drug market knowledge at an operational level. In turn, the intelligence produced at various levels could allow relevant law enforcement agencies to take necessary measures in disrupting markets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Popovic
- Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Marie Morelato
- Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Simon Baechler
- School of Criminal Justice, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Adrian De Grazia
- Specialist Operations Forensics, Australian Federal Police, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Mark Tahtouh
- Specialist Operations Forensics, Australian Federal Police, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Claude Roux
- Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Alison Beavis
- Faculty of Science, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, New South Wales, Australia
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Almheiri S, Ahmad AA, Le Droumaguet B, Pires R, Chehimi MM, Mohamed AA. Spontaneous redox route for gold‐aryl film development of latent fingerprints on nickel coins. SURF INTERFACE ANAL 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/sia.6941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Saeed Almheiri
- Center for Advanced Materials Research, Research Institute of Sciences and Engineering University of Sharjah Sharjah UAE
- Univ Paris Est Créteil, CNRS, UMR 7182, UPEC, F‐94320 Thiais France
| | | | | | - Rémy Pires
- Univ Paris Est Créteil, CNRS, UMR 7182, UPEC, F‐94320 Thiais France
| | | | - Ahmed A. Mohamed
- Center for Advanced Materials Research, Research Institute of Sciences and Engineering University of Sharjah Sharjah UAE
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Sauzier G, van Bronswijk W, Lewis SW. Chemometrics in forensic science: approaches and applications. Analyst 2021; 146:2415-2448. [PMID: 33729240 DOI: 10.1039/d1an00082a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Forensic investigations are often reliant on physical evidence to reconstruct events surrounding a crime. However, there remains a need for more objective approaches to evidential interpretation, along with rigorously validated procedures for handling, storage and analysis. Chemometrics has been recognised as a powerful tool within forensic science for interpretation and optimisation of analytical procedures. However, careful consideration must be given to factors such as sampling, validation and underpinning study design. This tutorial review aims to provide an accessible overview of chemometric methods within the context of forensic science. The review begins with an overview of selected chemometric techniques, followed by a broad review of studies demonstrating the utility of chemometrics across various forensic disciplines. The tutorial review ends with the discussion of the challenges and emerging trends in this rapidly growing field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgina Sauzier
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, Western Australia 6845, Australia.
| | - Wilhelm van Bronswijk
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, Western Australia 6845, Australia.
| | - Simon W Lewis
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, Western Australia 6845, Australia.
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Jones NS, Comparin JH. Interpol review of controlled substances 2016-2019. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2020; 2:608-669. [PMID: 33385148 PMCID: PMC7770462 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2020.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in controlled substances from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20Review%20Papers%202019.pdf.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole S. Jones
- RTI International, Applied Justice Research Division, Center for Forensic Sciences, 3040 E. Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 22709-2194, USA
| | - Jeffrey H. Comparin
- United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Special Testing and Research Laboratory, USA
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Evaluation of data preprocessings for the comparison of GC–MS chemical profiles of seized cannabis samples. Forensic Sci Int 2020; 310:110228. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2019] [Revised: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Braley C, Hondrogiannis EM. Differentiation of Commercially Available Kratom by Purported Country of Origin using Inductively Coupled Plasma–Mass Spectrometry,. J Forensic Sci 2019; 65:428-437. [DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.14201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Revised: 08/23/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Cody Braley
- Master of Science, Forensic Science Program Department of Chemistry Towson University Towson MD21252‐0001
| | - Ellen M. Hondrogiannis
- Master of Science, Forensic Science Program Department of Chemistry Towson University Towson MD21252‐0001
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Popovic A, Morelato M, Roux C, Beavis A. Review of the most common chemometric techniques in illicit drug profiling. Forensic Sci Int 2019; 302:109911. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2019.109911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Romolo FS, Salvini A, Zelaschi F, Oddone M, Odoardi S, Mestria S, Strano Rossi S. Instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) and liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) characterisation of sildenafil based products seized on the Italian illegal market. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2019; 1:126-136. [PMID: 32411964 PMCID: PMC7221474 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2019.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2019] [Revised: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The commerce of illegal and counterfeit medicinal products on internet is a serious criminal problem. Drugs for erectile dysfunction such as phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor are the most commonly counterfeited medicines in Europe. The search of possible toxic chemical substances in seized products is needed. Moreover, the profiling of the material can be the source of relevant forensic information. For the first time a combined approach based on liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) and instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) is proposed and tested, allowing characterisation of both authentic and illegal pharmaceuticals containing sildenafil seized in Italy. LC-HRMS allowed the detection and identification of unknown impurities not reported on labels in illegal products and the quantitation of the sildenafil. INAA showed to be suitable to provide both qualitative and quantitative information for forensic purposes on 23 elements, allowing discrimination between legal and illegal products.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrea Salvini
- Laboratory of Applied Nuclear Energy, University of Pavia, Italy
- Radiochemistry Area – Chemistry Department, Università di Pavia, Italy
| | - Fabio Zelaschi
- Laboratory of Applied Nuclear Energy, University of Pavia, Italy
- Radiochemistry Area – Chemistry Department, Università di Pavia, Italy
| | - Massimo Oddone
- Laboratory of Applied Nuclear Energy, University of Pavia, Italy
- Radiochemistry Area – Chemistry Department, Università di Pavia, Italy
| | - Sara Odoardi
- Forensic Toxicology Laboratory, Institute of Public Health, F. Policlinico Gemelli IRCCS Roma - Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy
| | - Serena Mestria
- Forensic Toxicology Laboratory, Institute of Public Health, F. Policlinico Gemelli IRCCS Roma - Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy
| | - Sabina Strano Rossi
- Forensic Toxicology Laboratory, Institute of Public Health, F. Policlinico Gemelli IRCCS Roma - Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy
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Bode P, Romanò S, Romolo FS. Large sample neutron activation analysis avoids representative sub-sampling and sample preparation difficulties: An added value for forensic analysis. Forensic Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2017.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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