Using virtual reality for forensic examinations of injuries

External post-mortem examination in virtual reality-scalability of a monocentric application

Conducting external post-mortem examinations is an essential skill required of physicians in various countries, regardless of their specialization. However, the quality of these examinations has been a subject of continuous debates, and notable errors were reviled. In response to these shortcomings, a virtual reality (VR) application was developed at Halle's medical department in Germany, focusing on the scene of discovery and the completion of death certificates. The initial trial of this VR application in 2020 involved 39 students and 15 early-career professionals. Based on the feedback, the application underwent improvements and was subsequently introduced to the medical department in Dresden, Germany, in 2022. Its primary objective was to showcase the VR training's adaptability and scalability across various educational structures and levels of medical expertise. Out of 73 students who participated, 63 completed the evaluation process. 93.1% (n = 58) of the evaluators reported increased confidence in conducting external post-mortem examinations, and 96.8% (n = 61) felt more assured in filling out death certificates, crediting this progress to the VR training. Additionally, 98.4% (n = 62) believed that repeating forensic medical aspects in their coursework was crucial, and 96.8% (n = 61) viewed the VR examination as a valuable addition to their academic program. Despite these positive responses, 91.6% (n = 55) of participants maintained that training with real corpses remains irreplaceable due to the insufficiency of haptic feedback in VR. Nevertheless, the potential for enhancing the VR content and expanding the training to additional locations or related disciplines warrants further exploration.

The role of a digital twin in supporting criminal investigations - a case report about a possible abuse

As part of a comprehensive analysis, this case report presents a possible case of child maltreatment that can serve as a basis for forensic and medical examiner investigations. This case concerns the death of an infant who was approximately two months old. During a routine examination by the pediatrician at the end of May 2021, the child was found to have a normal head circumference of 31 cm. No other abnormalities were noted. On June 19, 2021, the child died, and an autopsy revealed a head circumference of 44 cm and a subdural hematoma as the cause of death. Questions arose as to who might have abused the child and when. The only evidence was a low-quality cell phone video taken by the child's parents on June 13, 2021, six days before the child's death, in which the child could be seen lying on a pillow. It was necessary to determine whether the child in this video already had an unnatural head circumference. This study presents a novel workflow that demonstrates how to analyze and deal with low quality video to answer questions like the above. The workflow demonstrates the creation of 3D scenes from digital image and video material. These 3D scenes can be used for object measurement and to support forensic and medical investigations. In the present case, where only low quality smartphone images were available, the presented workflow was used to create a 3D scene of the child lying on the pillow. In this 3D scene, it was possible to determine the child's head circumference. These measurements support the findings of the medical examiner (dated June 24, 2021) and confirm the suspicion that possible child abuse had already taken place on June 13, 2021. The innovative approach makes it possible to identify evidence of possible abuse based on a specific point in time, in this case the child's private footage. It also demonstrates the potential of 3D scene reconstruction in complex forensic and medical scenarios.

A consistent methodology for forensic photogrammetry scanning of human remains using a single handheld DSLR camera

Due to increasingly capable algorithms and more available processing power, photogrammetry is becoming a simple, cheap, and accurate alternative to 3D optical surface scanning. With adequate application, it can be a swift documentation technique for reconstructing the geometry and body surface of deceased persons in autopsies or other forensic medical examinations. Sufficiently easy and swift 3D documentation techniques may allow 3D imaging technologies to become part of the daily routine of any forensic medical examiner or other medical personnel. This paper presents a consistent and systematic photographing methodology (as an alternative to automated or intuitive methods) for photogrammetry scanning of human remains. Although it requires manual photography, the methods presented in this paper offer a swift and easy way to capture an accurate 3D model of human remains under almost any conditions. Four different photographing procedures were tested on four subjects: (i) a systematic circular technique with 100 photos, (ii) a systematic circular technique with 50 photos, (iii) a technique loosely mimicking cameras mounted on a postmortem CT device with 98 photos, and (iv) a technique mimicking cameras mounted on a postmortem CT device with 49 photos. Measurement accuracy was tested with the aid of six adhesive control points placed at approximately the same locations on each subject. Five different distances defined by these control points were measured and compared to the measurements taken by hand. 3D photogrammetry meshes created using these techniques were also compared with point clouds acquired using a 3D laser scanner. We found that a carefully composed, tested, and systematic photographing procedure significantly improved the quality of the photogrammetry models. In terms of relative difference compared to the hand measurements, both Techniques 1 and 2 produced close results, with an average relative difference of 0.160% and 0.197% and a maximum relative difference of 0.481% and 0.481%, respectively, while models reconstructed from images taken using Techniques 3 and 4 seemed to be much less accurate, with an average relative difference of 0.398% and 0.391% and a maximum relative difference as high as 1.233% and 1.139%, respectively. This study highlights the importance of a scientifically tested methodology for obtaining high-quality 3D models in forensic applications.

Key points

Close-range photogrammetry is an easy, fast, and cheap way to acquire 3D models of human remains of forensic importance.A carefully composed, tested, and systematic photographing procedure has a key role and can greatly increase the quality of photogrammetry models.A photogrammetry-based 3D-digitalization technique could be developed and adopted as part of the daily routine during autopsies.Photogrammetry-based 3D models are much quicker to acquire, look more photorealistic, and are almost as accurate as certain laser scanner-based models.

Augmented reality in forensics and forensic medicine - Current status and future prospects

Forensic investigations require a vast variety of knowledge and expertise of each specialist involved. With the increase in digitization and advanced technical possibilities, the traditional use of a computer with a screen for visualization and a mouse and keyboard for interactions has limitations, especially when visualizing the content in relation to the real world. Augmented reality (AR) can be used in such instances to support investigators in various tasks at the scene as well as later in the investigation process. In this article, we present current applications of AR in forensics and forensic medicine, the technological basics of AR, and the advantages that AR brings for forensic investigations. Furthermore, we will have a brief look at other fields of application and at future developments of AR in forensics.

Identification parade in immersive virtual reality - A technical setup

Virtual Reality (VR) has sparked interest within the forensic community, where it is currently used for training purposes and in variety of forensic scenarios. In combination with efficient and user friendly full body 3-Dimensional (3D) documentation methods, VR visualisations present a viable tool for suspect witness identification. The well-known procedure of placing several persons in a room with a one-way-mirror, along with a witness on the other side of the mirror has practical disadvantages. The primary concern implicates the witness(s) and person(s) of interest coming face-to-face prior to the line-up, combined with finding sufficient persons to include within the line-up. Although image identification using printed paper partially resolved this problem, features such as body stature also marks an issue for the recognition and identification process. To test whether VR provides the technical capabilities to perform an identification parade, a total of 15 subjects were 3D documented using the multi-camera device "Photobox". From this group, one of the documented persons then interrupted a lecture, where consequently, the students were asked afterwards to identify the same person in VR and paper identification sets. It was found that the participating students were able to identify the "suspect" in both datasets. The results imply that VR technology allow users to identify persons. However, as this is a preliminary study the similarity problem was not analysed in this paper and requires further investigation to demonstrate the robustness of this approach.

The forensic holodeck - Recommendations after 8 years of experience for additional equipment to document VR applications

The forensic holodeck was first introduced in 2013, using the first upcoming commercially available virtual reality gaming headsets to visualize forensic 3D reconstructions. Following the publication of this development virtual reality was introduced in case work in a variety of different ways. After 8 years of using virtual reality in a professional forensic capacity this professional practice report will show, which equipment is necessary in addition to a virtual reality setup. This mostly includes audio-visual and broadcasting technology for complete documentation of the application of virtual reality, but also some other IT equipment, which should be available for as low as 20'000 US$. Guidelines, hints and tips regarding equipment acquisition, setup and use will be provided and discussed.

Virtual reality and its transformation in forensic education and research practices

Documentation and evidence analysis are major components in forensic investigation; hence two-dimensional (2D) photographs along with three-dimensional (3D) models and data are used to accomplish this task. Data generated through 3D scanning and photogrammetry are generally visualised on a computer screen. However, spatial details are lost on the visualisation of 3D data on 2D computer screens. Virtual reality (VR) is an immersive technology that allows a user to visualise 3D information by immersing oneself into the scene. In forensics, VR was particularly introduced for the visualising and plotting distances of crime scenes; however, this technology has wider applications in the field of forensics and for court presentation. This short communication outlines the concept of VR and its potential in the field of forensics.

Comparison of superficial wound documentation using 2D forensic photography, 3D photogrammetry, Botscan© and VR with real-life examination

Evidence acquisition, interpretation and preservation are essential parts of forensic case work that make a standardized documentation process fundamental. The most commonly used method for the documentation and interpretation of superficial wounds is a combination of two modalities: two-dimensional (2D) photography for evidence preservation and real-life examination for wound analysis. As technologies continue to develop, 2D photography is being enhanced with three-dimensional (3D) documentation technology. In our study, we compared the real-life examination of superficial wounds using four different technical documentation and visualization methods.

To test the different methods, a mannequin was equipped with several injury stickers, and then the different methods were applied. A total of 42 artificial injury stickers were documented in regard to orientation, form, color, size, wound borders, wound corners and suspected mechanism of injury for the injury mechanism. As the gold standard, superficial wounds were visually examined by two board-certified forensic pathologists directly on the mannequin. These results were compared to an examination using standard 2D forensic photography; 2D photography using the multicamera system Botscan©, which included predefined viewing positions all around the body; and 3D photogrammetric reconstruction based on images visualized both on screen and in a virtual reality (VR) using a head-mounted display (HMD).

The results of the gold standard examination showed that the two forensic pathologists had an inter-reader agreement ranging from 69% for the orientation and 11% for the size of the wounds. A substantial portion of the direct visual documentation showed only a partial overlap, especially for the items of size and color, thereby prohibiting the statistical comparison of these two items. A forest plot analysis of the remaining six items showed no significant difference between the methods. We found that among the forensic pathologists, there was high variability regarding the vocabulary used for the description of wound morphology, which complicated the exact comparison of the two documentations of the same wound.

There were no significant differences for any of the four methods compared to the gold standard, thereby challenging the role of real-life examination and 2D photography as the most reliable documentation approaches. Further studies with real injuries are necessary to support our evaluation that technical examination methods involving multicamera systems and 3D visualization for whole-body examination might be a valid alternative in future forensic documentation.

Virtual anthropology? Reliability of three-dimensional photogrammetry as a forensic anthropology measurement and documentation technique

Osseous remains provide forensic anthropologists with morphological and osteometric information that can be used in building a biological profile. By conducting a visual and physical examination, an anthropologist can infer information such as the sex and age of the deceased. Traditionally, morphological and osteometric information is gathered by physically handling remains for analysis. With the advancement of digital technology, there has been a shift from direct to indirect methods of analysis by utilizing models generated from three-dimensional (3D) imaging, which includes computed tomography (CT) scanning and 3D photogrammetry. Although CT scanning is more common, photogrammetry has found application in a range of fields such as architecture, geography and road accident reconstruction. The application of modern-day photogrammetry for forensic anthropology purposes, however, has not been discussed extensively. The aim of this research was to validate the accuracy of 3D models generated by photogrammetry by comparing them to both 3D models generated by CT scanning and the actual physical models. In this study, six 3D models were created using photogrammetry (n = 3) and CT scanning (n = 3). The 3D models were generated from three different Bone Clone® human skulls. A mobile phone camera was used to capture images, which were then processed in Agisoft Metashape®. Intrarater, interrater, and intermethod reliability tests gave correlation coefficients of at least 0.9980, 0.9871, and 0.9862, respectively; rTEM results ranged from 0.250 to 6.55%; and an analysis of variance (ANOVA) yielded P values under 0.05 for all measurements except one. Statistical tests therefore showed photogrammetry to be a reliable and accurate alternative to more expensive CT scanning approaches.

The Construction and Validation of a Sustainable Tourism Development Evaluation Model

As climate change, food crises, sustainable development, and ecological conservation gain traction, the revival of traditional fishing villages has become an important governmental policy for Taiwan. To reduce cognitive bias, the choice experiment method was applied to construct an attribute function in fishing village tourism coupled with virtual reality headsets. Conditional logit and random parameter logit models were employed to estimate tourism utility functions. Moreover, a latent class model was employed to determine whether hetxerogeneous preferences regarding fishing village travel existed. The sampling sites were distributed across the Dongshi area. In total, 612 tourists and 170 local residents were interviewed. After incomplete questionnaires were removed, 816 valid questionnaires remained, representing 95.83% of the total questionnaires. Older residents and residents with shorter histories of education were inclined to increase land development and utilization by reducing natural landscapes; tourists preferred preserving landscapes and preventing land development. Residents with more education believed that local landscape imagery was essential. Tourists who were more educated, with high incomes, and those who were older believed that a selling platform incorporating local industries and products within the villages would be attractive for other tourists.

Validation of virtual reality orbitometry bridges digital and physical worlds

Clinical science and medical imaging technology are traditionally displayed in two dimensions (2D) on a computer monitor. In contrast, three-dimensional (3D) virtual reality (VR) expands the realm of 2D image visualization, enabling an immersive VR experience with unhindered spatial interaction by the user. Thus far, analysis of data extracted from VR applications was mainly qualitative. In this study, we enhance VR and provide evidence for quantitative VR research by validating digital VR display of computed tomography (CT) data of the orbit. Volumetric CT data were transferred and rendered into a VR environment. Subsequently, seven graders performed repeated and blinded diameter measurements. The intergrader variability of the measurements in VR was much lower compared to measurements in the physical world and measurements were reasonably consistent with their corresponding elements in the real context. The overall VR measurements were 5.49% higher. As such, this study attests the ability of VR to provide similar quantitative data alongside the added benefit of VR interfaces. VR entails a lot of potential for the future research in ophthalmology and beyond in any scientific field that uses three-dimensional data.

Clinical forensic height measurements on injured people using a multi camera device for 3D documentation

Documenting the existence, size, position and shape of injuries is an important part of medical forensic examinations. In the photography of an injury, the documentation is limited to an approximation of size and position of the injury based on a ruler included in the image. The documentation of injuries can be improved with photogrammetry, which allows the creation of scaled 3D models of an injury that can be used to not only document and visualize the injury but also to match the injury with an injury-causing object. In this paper, the multicamera device “Botscan” was used to perform 3D whole-body documentation and measure the positions of injuries. A major advantage of 3D whole-body documentation compared to photography is that the former can be performed at a later stage of the investigation. This makes the whole-body 3D documentation of injuries an important tool for re-examination.

A toolbox for the rapid prototyping of crime scene reconstructions in virtual reality

Virtual reality is recently finding its way in forensic work. The required 3D data is nowadays a standard dataset available in many cases, from homicide to traffic collisions, including not only data from the scene but also of weaponry and involved persons. Current investigations use these 3D data to replicated the incident and as discussion base for forensic personal. However, modifying the scene on a 2D viewport is often cumbersome due to the loss of the third dimension. Also to perform the modifications on the scene a 3D operator is often required. Virtual reality might improve this step by its easy use and by visualising the third dimension. This publication presents a variety of tools which can be used in forensic investigations. Additionally to the tools, examples of forensic use of these tools will be presented, showing that already a small number of tools support a variety of forensic applications.