1
|
Tubby K, Forster J, Mullett M, Needham R, Smith O, Snowden J, McCartan S. Can the Seed Trade Provide a Potential Pathway for the Global Distribution of Foliar Pathogens? An Investigation into the Use of Heat Treatments to Reduce Risk of Dothistroma septosporum Transmission via Seed Stock. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:1190. [PMID: 38132790 PMCID: PMC10744699 DOI: 10.3390/jof9121190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The international plant trade results in the accidental movement of invasive pests and pathogens, and has contributed significantly to recent range expansion of pathogens including Dothistroma septosporum. Seeds are usually thought to present a lower biosecurity risk than plants, but the importation of Pinus contorta seeds from North America to Britain in the mid-1900s, and similarities between British and Canadian D. septosporum populations suggests seeds could be a pathway. Dothistroma septosporum has not been isolated from seeds, but inadequately cleaned seed material could contain infected needle fragments. This case study investigated whether cone kilning, and wet and dry heat treatments could reduce D. septosporum transmission without damaging seed viability. Pinus needles infected with D. septosporum were incubated alongside cones undergoing three commercial seed extraction processes. Additional needles were exposed to temperatures ranging from 10 to 67 °C dry heat for up to 48 h, or incubated in water heated to between 20 and 60 °C for up to one hour. Pinus sylvestris seeds were exposed to 60 and 65 dry heat °C for 48 h, and further seed samples incubated in water heated to between 20 and 60 °C for up to one hour. Dothistroma septosporum survived the three kilning processes and while seeds were not damaged by dry heat exceeding 63.5 °C, at this temperature no D. septosporum survived. Wet heat treatments resulted in less than 10% pathogen survival following incubation at 40 °C, while at this temperature the seeds suffered no significant impacts, even when submerged for one hour. Thus, commercial seed kilning could allow D. septosporum transmission, but elevated wet and dry heat treatments could be applied to seed stock to minimise pathogen risk without significantly damaging seed viability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Tubby
- Forest Research, Forestry Commission, Alice Holt Lodge, Farnham GU10 4LH, UK (M.M.); (O.S.); (J.S.); (S.M.)
| | - Jack Forster
- Forest Research, Forestry Commission, Alice Holt Lodge, Farnham GU10 4LH, UK (M.M.); (O.S.); (J.S.); (S.M.)
| | - Martin Mullett
- Forest Research, Forestry Commission, Alice Holt Lodge, Farnham GU10 4LH, UK (M.M.); (O.S.); (J.S.); (S.M.)
- Department of Forest Protection and Wildlife Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Phytophthora Research Centre, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Robert Needham
- Forest Research, Forestry Commission, Alice Holt Lodge, Farnham GU10 4LH, UK (M.M.); (O.S.); (J.S.); (S.M.)
| | - Olivia Smith
- Forest Research, Forestry Commission, Alice Holt Lodge, Farnham GU10 4LH, UK (M.M.); (O.S.); (J.S.); (S.M.)
| | - James Snowden
- Forest Research, Forestry Commission, Alice Holt Lodge, Farnham GU10 4LH, UK (M.M.); (O.S.); (J.S.); (S.M.)
| | - Shelagh McCartan
- Forest Research, Forestry Commission, Alice Holt Lodge, Farnham GU10 4LH, UK (M.M.); (O.S.); (J.S.); (S.M.)
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Mesarich CH, Barnes I, Bradley EL, de la Rosa S, de Wit PJGM, Guo Y, Griffiths SA, Hamelin RC, Joosten MHAJ, Lu M, McCarthy HM, Schol CR, Stergiopoulos I, Tarallo M, Zaccaron AZ, Bradshaw RE. Beyond the genomes of Fulvia fulva (syn. Cladosporium fulvum) and Dothistroma septosporum: New insights into how these fungal pathogens interact with their host plants. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2023; 24:474-494. [PMID: 36790136 PMCID: PMC10098069 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Fulvia fulva and Dothistroma septosporum are closely related apoplastic pathogens with similar lifestyles but different hosts: F. fulva is a pathogen of tomato, whilst D. septosporum is a pathogen of pine trees. In 2012, the first genome sequences of these pathogens were published, with F. fulva and D. septosporum having highly fragmented and near-complete assemblies, respectively. Since then, significant advances have been made in unravelling their genome architectures. For instance, the genome of F. fulva has now been assembled into 14 chromosomes, 13 of which have synteny with the 14 chromosomes of D. septosporum, suggesting these pathogens are even more closely related than originally thought. Considerable advances have also been made in the identification and functional characterization of virulence factors (e.g., effector proteins and secondary metabolites) from these pathogens, thereby providing new insights into how they promote host colonization or activate plant defence responses. For example, it has now been established that effector proteins from both F. fulva and D. septosporum interact with cell-surface immune receptors and co-receptors to activate the plant immune system. Progress has also been made in understanding how F. fulva and D. septosporum have evolved with their host plants, whilst intensive research into pandemics of Dothistroma needle blight in the Northern Hemisphere has shed light on the origins, migration, and genetic diversity of the global D. septosporum population. In this review, we specifically summarize advances made in our understanding of the F. fulva-tomato and D. septosporum-pine pathosystems over the last 10 years.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carl H Mesarich
- Laboratory of Molecular Plant Pathology, School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
- Bioprotection Aotearoa, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Irene Barnes
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Ellie L Bradley
- Laboratory of Molecular Plant Pathology, School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Silvia de la Rosa
- Laboratory of Molecular Plant Pathology, School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Pierre J G M de Wit
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Yanan Guo
- Bioprotection Aotearoa, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
- Laboratory of Molecular Plant Pathology, School of Natural Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | | | - Richard C Hamelin
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes, Université Laval, Québec City, Québec, Canada
| | | | - Mengmeng Lu
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Hannah M McCarthy
- Laboratory of Molecular Plant Pathology, School of Natural Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Christiaan R Schol
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
- Plant Breeding, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Ioannis Stergiopoulos
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Mariana Tarallo
- Laboratory of Molecular Plant Pathology, School of Natural Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Alex Z Zaccaron
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Rosie E Bradshaw
- Bioprotection Aotearoa, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
- Laboratory of Molecular Plant Pathology, School of Natural Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Molecular-Based Reappraisal of a Historical Record of Dothistroma Needle Blight in the Centre of the Mediterranean Region. FORESTS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/f12080983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we rechecked, using species-specific Loop mediated isothermal AMPlification (LAMP) diagnostic assays followed by sequencing of fungal isolates at the beta-2-tubulin (tub2) gene region, a historical and never confirmed report of Dothistroma needle blight (DNB) in the introduced Monterey pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) in the mountains in the extreme tip of southern Italy. The report dates back to the mid-1970s, and predates the molecular-based taxonomic revision of the genus Dothistroma that defined the species accepted today. In the fall of 2019, symptomatic needles of Monterey pine and Corsican pine (Pinus nigra subsp. laricio (Poir.) Palib. ex Maire) were sampled in the area of the first finding. The applied diagnostic methods revealed the presence of Dothistroma septosporum (Dorogin) M. Morelet on both pine species. In this way, we: (i) confirmed the presence of the disease; (ii) clarified the taxonomic identity of the causal agent now occurring at that site; (iii) validated the species-specific LAMP diagnostic protocol we recently developed for Dothistroma for use on a portable field instrument, and (iv) showed that the pathogen now also attacks the native P. nigra subsp. laricio, a species particularly susceptible to the disease, indigenous to the mountains of Calabria, which is one of the very few areas where the species’ genetic resources are conserved. Comparative genetic analysis of the rare populations of D. septosporum found in the central Mediterranean region and in the native range of P. nigra subsp. laricio could help to clarify the history of the spread of the pathogen in southern Europe and better evaluate the risk it poses to the conservation of native pine species.
Collapse
|
4
|
Worldwide Genetic Structure Elucidates the Eurasian Origin and Invasion Pathways of Dothistroma septosporum, Causal Agent of Dothistroma Needle Blight. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7020111. [PMID: 33546260 PMCID: PMC7913368 DOI: 10.3390/jof7020111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Dothistroma septosporum, the primary causal agent of Dothistroma needle blight, is one of the most significant foliar pathogens of pine worldwide. Its wide host and environmental ranges have led to its global success as a pathogen and severe economic damage to pine forests in many regions. This comprehensive global population study elucidated the historical migration pathways of the pathogen to reveal the Eurasian origin of the fungus. When over 3800 isolates were examined, three major population clusters were revealed: North America, Western Europe, and Eastern Europe, with distinct subclusters in the highly diverse Eastern European cluster. Modeling of historical scenarios using approximate Bayesian computation revealed the North American cluster was derived from an ancestral population in Eurasia. The Northeastern European subcluster was shown to be ancestral to all other European clusters and subclusters. The Turkish subcluster diverged first, followed by the Central European subcluster, then the Western European cluster, which has subsequently spread to much of the Southern Hemisphere. All clusters and subclusters contained both mating-types of the fungus, indicating the potential for sexual reproduction, although asexual reproduction remained the primary mode of reproduction. The study strongly suggests the native range of D. septosporum to be in Eastern Europe (i.e., the Baltic and Western Russia) and Western Asia.
Collapse
|
5
|
Capron A, Feau N, Heinzelmann R, Barnes I, Benowicz A, Bradshaw RE, Dale A, Lewis KJ, Owen TJ, Reich R, Ramsfield TD, Woods AJ, Hamelin RC. Signatures of Post-Glacial Genetic Isolation and Human-Driven Migration in the Dothistroma Needle Blight Pathogen in Western Canada. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2021; 111:116-127. [PMID: 33112215 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-08-20-0350-fi] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Many current tree improvement programs are incorporating assisted gene flow strategies to match reforestation efforts with future climates. This is the case for the lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia), the most extensively planted tree in western Canada. Knowledge of the structure and origin of pathogen populations associated with this tree would help improve the breeding effort. Recent outbreaks of the Dothistroma needle blight (DNB) pathogen Dothistroma septosporum on lodgepole pine in British Columbia and its discovery in Alberta plantations raised questions about the diversity and population structure of this pathogen in western Canada. Using genotyping-by-sequencing on 119 D. septosporum isolates from 16 natural pine populations and plantations from this area, we identified four genetic lineages, all distinct from the other DNB lineages from outside of North America. Modeling of the population history indicated that these lineages diverged between 31.4 and 7.2 thousand years ago, coinciding with the last glacial maximum and the postglacial recolonization of lodgepole pine in western North America. The lineage found in the Kispiox Valley from British Columbia, where an unprecedented DNB epidemic occurred in the 1990s, was close to demographic equilibrium and displayed a high level of haplotypic diversity. Two lineages found in Alberta and Prince George (British Columbia) showed departure from random mating and contemporary gene flow, likely resulting from pine breeding activities and material exchanges in these areas. The increased movement of planting material could have some major consequences by facilitating secondary contact between genetically isolated DNB lineages, possibly resulting in new epidemics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arnaud Capron
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Nicolas Feau
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Renate Heinzelmann
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Irene Barnes
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa
| | - Andy Benowicz
- Alberta Agriculture and Forestry, 9920-108 Street, Edmonton, AB, T5K 2M4, Canada
| | - Rosie E Bradshaw
- School of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, 4410, New Zealand
| | - Angela Dale
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- SC-New Construction Materials, FPInnovations, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Kathy J Lewis
- Ecosystem Science and Management Program, University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George, BC, V2N 4Z9, Canada
| | - Timothy J Owen
- Ecosystem Science and Management Program, University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George, BC, V2N 4Z9, Canada
| | - Richard Reich
- Natural Resources and Forest Technology, College of New Caledonia, Prince George, BC, V2N 1P8, Canada
| | - Tod D Ramsfield
- Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, 5320 - 122 St., Edmonton, AB, T6H 3S5, Canada
| | - Alex J Woods
- BC Ministry of Forests Lands and Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development, Skeena Region, Smithers, BC, V0J 2N0, Canada
| | - Richard C Hamelin
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Faculté de foresterie et géomatique, Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec, QC, G1V0A6, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Ennos RA, Sjökvist EI, Piotrowska MJ, Riddell C, Hoebe PN. Using genome resequencing to investigate racial structure, genetic diversity, sexual reproduction and hybridisation in the pine pathogen Dothistroma septosporum. FUNGAL ECOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2020.100921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
|
7
|
Potential Interactions between Invasive Fusarium circinatum and Other Pine Pathogens in Europe. FORESTS 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/f11010007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Pines are major components of native forests and plantations in Europe, where they have both economic significance and an important ecological role. Diseases of pines are mainly caused by fungal and oomycete pathogens, and can significantly reduce the survival, vigor, and yield of both individual trees and entire stands or plantations. Pine pitch canker (PPC), caused by Fusarium circinatum (Nirenberg and O’Donnell), is among the most devastating pine diseases in the world, and is an example of an emergent invasive disease in Europe. The effects of microbial interactions on plant health, as well as the possible roles plant microbiomes may have in disease expression, have been the focus of several recent studies. Here, we describe the possible effects of co-infection with pathogenic fungi and oomycetes with F. circinatum on the health of pine seedlings and mature plants, in an attempt to expand our understanding of the role that biotic interactions may play in the future of PPC disease in European nurseries and forests. The available information on pine pathogens that are able to co-occur with F. circinatum in Europe is here reviewed and interpreted to theoretically predict the effects of such co-occurrences on pine survival, growth, and yield. Beside the awareness that F. circinatum may co-occurr on pines with other pathogens, an additional outcome from this review is an updating of the literature, including the so-called grey literature, to document the geographical distribution of the relevant pathogens and to facilitate differential diagnoses, particularly in nurseries, where some of them may cause symptoms similar to those induced by F. circinatum. An early and accurate diagnosis of F. circinatum, a pathogen that has been recently introduced and that is currently regulated in Europe, is essential to prevent its introduction and spread in plantings and forests.
Collapse
|
8
|
Piotrowska MJ, Riddell C, Hoebe PN, Ennos RA. Planting exotic relatives has increased the threat posed by Dothistroma septosporum to the Caledonian pine populations of Scotland. Evol Appl 2018; 11:350-363. [PMID: 29632553 PMCID: PMC5881121 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2017] [Accepted: 10/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
To manage emerging forest diseases and prevent their occurrence in the future, it is essential to determine the origin(s) of the pathogens involved and identify the management practices that have ultimately caused disease problems. One such practice is the widespread planting of exotic tree species within the range of related native taxa. This can lead to emerging forest disease both by facilitating introduction of exotic pathogens and by providing susceptible hosts on which epidemics of native pathogens can develop. We used microsatellite markers to determine the origins of the pathogen Dothistroma septosporum responsible for the current outbreak of Dothistroma needle blight (DNB) on native Caledonian Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) populations in Scotland and evaluated the role played by widespread planting of two exotic pine species in the development of the disease outbreak. We distinguished three races of D. septosporum in Scotland, one of low genetic diversity associated with introduced lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), one of high diversity probably derived from the DNB epidemic on introduced Corsican pine (Pinus nigra subsp. laricio) in England and a third of intermediate diversity apparently endemic on Caledonian Scots pine. These races differed for both growth rate and exudate production in culture. Planting of exotic pine stands in the UK appears to have facilitated the introduction of two exotic races of D. septosporum into Scotland which now pose a threat to native Caledonian pines both directly and through potential hybridization and introgression with the endemic race. Our results indicate that both removal of exotic species from the vicinity of Caledonian pine populations and restriction of movement of planting material are required to minimize the impact of the current DNB outbreak. They also demonstrate that planting exotic species that are related to native species reduces rather than enhances the resilience of forests to pathogens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marta J. Piotrowska
- Crop and Soil Systems Research GroupScotland's Rural CollegeEdinburghUK
- The Institute of Biological Chemistry, Biophysics and BioengineeringHeriot‐Watt UniversityEdinburghUK
| | - Carolyn Riddell
- Institute of Evolutionary BiologyAshworth LaboratoriesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghUK
- Forest ResearchNorthern Research StationRoslinUK
| | - Peter N. Hoebe
- Crop and Soil Systems Research GroupScotland's Rural CollegeEdinburghUK
| | - Richard A. Ennos
- Institute of Evolutionary BiologyAshworth LaboratoriesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Adamson K, Mullett MS, Solheim H, Barnes I, Müller MM, Hantula J, Vuorinen M, Kačergius A, Markovskaja S, Musolin DL, Davydenko K, Keča N, Ligi K, Priedite RD, Millberg H, Drenkhan R. Looking for relationships between the populations of Dothistroma septosporum in northern Europe and Asia. Fungal Genet Biol 2017; 110:15-25. [PMID: 29223582 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2017.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Revised: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Dothistroma septosporum, a notorious pine needle pathogen with an unknown historical geographic origin and poorly known distribution pathways, is nowadays found almost in all areas inhabited by pines (Pinus spp.). The main aim of this study was to determine the relationship between North European and East Asian populations. In total, 238 Eurasian D. septosporum isolates from 11 countries, including 211 isolates from northern Europe, 16 isolates from Russian Far East and 11 isolates from Bhutan were analysed using 11 species-specific microsatellite and mating type markers. The most diverse populations were found in northern Europe, including the Baltic countries, Finland and European Russia. Notably, D. septosporum has not caused heavy damage to P. sylvestris in northern Europe, which may suggest a long co-existence of the host and the pathogen. No indication was obtained that the Russian Far East or Bhutan could be the indigenous area of D. septosporum, as the genetic diversity of the fungus there was low and evidence suggests gene flow from northern Europe to Russian Far East. On the western coast of Norway, a unique genetic pattern was observed, which differed from haplotypes dominating other Fennoscandian populations. As an agent of dothistroma needle blight, only D. septosporum was documented in northern Europe and Asia, while D. pini was found in Ukraine and Serbia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kalev Adamson
- Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia.
| | | | | | - Irene Barnes
- Department of Genetics, FABI, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | | | - Jarkko Hantula
- Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Martti Vuorinen
- Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Suonenjoki, Finland
| | - Audrius Kačergius
- Vokė Branch of Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | | | - Dmitry L Musolin
- Saint Petersburg State Forest Technical University, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Kateryna Davydenko
- Department of Biotechnology and Environment, Kharkiv Zooveterinary Academy, Kharkiv, Ukraine; Department Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology, Swedish Universiy of Agriculture Science, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Nenad Keča
- Faculty of Forestry-University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Karli Ligi
- Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia
| | | | - Hanna Millberg
- Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Rein Drenkhan
- Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia
| |
Collapse
|