Assessing the impact of plantation forestry on plant biodiversity

Metabolome expression in Eucryphia cordifolia populations: Role of seasonality and ecological niche centrality hypothesis

The ecological niche centrality hypothesis states that population abundance is determined by the position in the ecological niche, expecting higher abundances towards the center of the niche and lower at the periphery. However, the variations in the conditions that favor the persistence of populations between the center and the periphery of the niche can be a surrogate of stress factors that are reflected in the production of metabolites in plants. In this study we tested if metabolomic similarity and diversity in populations of the tree species Eucryphia cordifolia Cav. vary according to their position with respect to the structure of the ecological niche. We hypothesize that populations growing near the centroid should exhibit lower metabolites diversity than plants growing at the periphery of the niche. The ecological niche of the species was modeled using correlative approaches and bioclimatic variables to define central and peripheral localities from which we chose four populations to obtain their metabolomic information using UHPLC-DAD-QTOF-MS. We observed that populations farther away from the centroid tend to have higher metabolome diversity, thus supporting our expectation of the niche centrality hypothesis. Nonetheless, the Shannon index showed a marked variation in metabolome diversity at the seasonal level, with summer and autumn being the periods with higher metabolite diversity compared to winter and spring. We conclude that both the environmental variation throughout the year in combination with the structure of the ecological niche are relevant to understand the variation in expression of metabolites in plants.

Deforestation by Afforestation: Land Use Change in the Coastal Range of Chile

In southern Chile, an establishment of a plantation-based forest industry occurred early in the industrial era. Forest companies claim that plantations were established on eroded lands. However, the plantation industry is under suspicion to have expanded its activities by clearing near-natural forests since the early 1970s. This paper uses a methodologically complex classification approach from own previously published research to elucidate land use dynamics in southern Chile. It uses spatial data (extended morphological profiles) in addition to spectral data from historical Landsat imagery, which are fusioned by kernel composition and then classified in a multiple classifier system (based on support, import and relevance vector machines). In a large study area (~67,000 km2), land use change is investigated in a narrow time frame (five-year steps from 1975 to 2010) in a two-way (prospective and retrospective) analysis. The results are discussed synoptically with other results on Chile. Two conclusions can be drawn for the coastal range. Near-natural forests have always been felled primarily in favor of the plantation industry. Vice versa, industrial plantations have always been primarily established on sites, that were formerly forest covered. This refutes the claim that Chilean plantations were established primarily to restore eroded lands; also known as badlands. The article further shows that Chile is not an isolated case of deforestation by afforestation, which has occurred in other countries alike. Based on the findings, it raises the question of the extent to which the Chilean example could be replicated in other countries through afforestation by market economy and climate change mitigation.

Mapping the deforestation footprint of nations reveals growing threat to tropical forests

Deforestation, a significant threat to biodiversity, is accelerated by global demand for commodities. Although prior literature has linked deforestation to global supply chains, here we provide a fine-scale representation of spatial patterns of deforestation associated with international trade. Using remote sensing data and a multi-region input-output model, we quantify and map the spatiotemporal changes in global deforestation footprints over 15 years (2001-2015) at a 30-m resolution. We find that, while many developed countries, China and India have obtained net forest gains domestically, they have also increased the deforestation embodied in their imports, of which tropical forests are the most threatened biome. Consumption patterns of G7 countries drive an average loss of 3.9 trees per person per year. Some of the hotspots of deforestation embodied in international trade are also biodiversity hotspots, such as in Southeast Asia, Madagascar, Liberia, Central America and the Amazonian rainforest. Our results emphasize the need to reform zero-deforestation policies through strong transnational efforts and by improving supply chain transparency, public-private engagement and financial support for the tropics.

An Analysis of the Impact of Forest Policy on Rural Areas of Chile

The relationship between the forest sector and the well-being of people that depend on it for their economic livelihoods in rural areas is of strong interest in forest policy. In this sense, Chile has developed a forest policy that has had positive impacts, particularly on economic and productive aspects, but also negative impacts, such as the reduction of natural forest area, biodiversity, and provision of ecosystem services, as well as the increase in social conflicts and land abandonment. However, there are few studies that have evaluated the impacts of forest policy on rural population and development of the territory. Therefore, the objective of this research is to evaluate the impacts of Chilean forest policy on rural communities, particularly in terms of demographic variables and indicators of community well-being. The study area corresponds to the Bio Bio and Ñuble Regions (Chile), and the analysis includes productive, demographic, socioeconomic, and educational characteristics of population. The results show that the forestry policy implemented was able to generate a significant increase in the proportion of forest area. However, when this increase is mainly of the type of exotic forest plantations, it is associated with a demographic and socio-economic detriment of the population in some counties of the study area.

Global guidelines for the sustainable use of non-native trees to prevent tree invasions and mitigate their negative impacts

Sustainably managed non-native trees deliver economic and societal benefits with limited risk of spread to adjoining areas. However, some plantations have launched invasions that cause substantial damage to biodiversity and ecosystem services, while others pose substantial threats of causing such impacts. The challenge is to maximise the benefits of non-native trees, while minimising negative impacts and preserving future benefits and options.

A workshop was held in 2019 to develop global guidelines for the sustainable use of non-native trees, using the Council of Europe – Bern Convention Code of Conduct on Invasive Alien Trees as a starting point.

The global guidelines consist of eight recommendations: 1) Use native trees, or non-invasive non-native trees, in preference to invasive non-native trees; 2) Be aware of and comply with international, national, and regional regulations concerning non-native trees; 3) Be aware of the risk of invasion and consider global change trends; 4) Design and adopt tailored practices for plantation site selection and silvicultural management; 5) Promote and implement early detection and rapid response programmes; 6) Design and adopt tailored practices for invasive non-native tree control, habitat restoration, and for dealing with highly modified ecosystems; 7) Engage with stakeholders on the risks posed by invasive non-native trees, the impacts caused, and the options for management; and 8) Develop and support global networks, collaborative research, and information sharing on native and non-native trees.

The global guidelines are a first step towards building global consensus on the precautions that should be taken when introducing and planting non-native trees. They are voluntary and are intended to complement statutory requirements under international and national legislation. The application of the global guidelines and the achievement of their goals will help to conserve forest biodiversity, ensure sustainable forestry, and contribute to the achievement of several Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations linked with forest biodiversity.

The Impact of Accounting for Future Wood Production in Global Vertebrate Biodiversity Assessments

Forests are among the most species rich habitats and the way they are managed influences their capacity to protect biodiversity. To fulfill increasing wood demands in the future, planted and non-planted wood production will need to expand. While biodiversity assessments usually focus on the impacts of deforestation, the effects of wood harvest are mostly not considered, especially not in a spatially explicit manner. We present here a global approach to refine the representation of forest management through allocating future wood production to planted and non-planted forests. Wood production, following wood consumption projections of three Shared Socioeconomic Pathways, was allocated using likelihood maps for planted and production forests. On a global scale, plantations for wood production were projected to increase by 45-65% and harvested area in non-planted forests by 1-17%. The biodiversity impacts of changes in wood production patterns were estimated by applying two commonly used indicators: (1) changes in species richness and (2) changes in habitat-suitable ranges of single species. The impact was analyzed using forest cover changes as reference. Our results show that, although forest cover changes have the largest impact on biodiversity, changes in wood production also have a significant effect. The magnitude of impacts caused by changes of wood production substantially differs by region and taxa. Given the importance of forest production changes in net negative emission pathways, more focus should be put on assessing the effects of future changes in wood production patterns as part of overall land use change impacts.

Root-Associated Fungal Communities in Two Populations of the Fully Mycoheterotrophic Plant Arachnitis uniflora Phil. (Corsiaceae) in Southern Chile

The microbiological interactions of the roots of non-photosynthetic plants in South America have been scarcely explored. This study analyzes culturable fungal diversity associated with the mycoheterotrophic plant Arachnitis uniflora Phil. (Corsiaceae) in southern Chile, growing in two different understoreys of native (Nothofagus-dominated) and mixed forest (native, Cupressus sempervirens, and Pinus radiata). Rhizospheric and endophytic fungi were isolated, cultured, and purified to identify microorganisms associated with A. uniflora roots. We showed the different fungi associated with the plant, and that these distributions are influenced by the sampling site. We isolated 410 fungal strains (144 endophytic and 266 from the rhizosphere). We identified 13 operative taxonomical units from plants sampled in the mixed forest, while 15 were from the native forest. Rhizospheric microorganisms were mainly related to Penicillium spp., whereas some pathogenic and saprophytic strains were more frequent inside the roots. Our results have also shown that the fungal strains are weak for phosphate solubilization, but other pathways such as organic acid exudation and indole acetic acid production can be considered as major mechanisms to stimulate plant growth. Our results point to new fungal associates of A. uniflora plants reported in Andean ecosystems, identifying new beneficial endophytic fungi associated with roots of this fully mycoheterotrophic plant.

Assessing Vegetation Composition and the Indicator Species Around Water Source Areas in a Pine Forest Plantation: A Case Study from Watujali and Silengkong Catchments, Kebumen, Indonesia

This research aimed to assess vegetation composition and the indicator species around water source areas of pine forest plantation. Data were collected through interview and vegetation survey. Vegetation communities were first compared using multi-response permutation procedure (MRPP) analysis. Indicator species analysis was then employed to determine the indicator species for each condition by considering historical data from the interview. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) and simple correlation analysis were also included. The result showed significant differences in species composition between water source areas in Watujali (lower low flow) and Silengkong (higher low flow) catchments, indicated by T = −5.104, p = 0.000. Pinus merkusii was dominant in Watujali (important value = 78%, D′ = 0.62) compared to Silengkong (important value = 41%, D' = 0.21), and in becoming an indicator species (value = 52.1, p = 0.042) for Watujali. Meanwhile, Laportea sinuata, as the specific tree of water source areas, was an indicator for Silengkong (value = 29.4, p = 0.004). At a smaller level, indicator species differentiated the two catchments, even though they shared similar in D′ and H′. Among specific plants of water source areas, only Ficus septica was an indicator for Watujali (value = 29.4, p = 0.004), given its adaptability. Specific plants of water source areas, including Laportea sinuata, Coctus spicatus, and Calocassia gigantea, were significant indicators for Silengkong catchments, illustrated by 34.6, 35.9, and 33.0 of indicator values, respectively. These results also reflected the relationship among tree vegetation change, environmental features, and the growth of smaller species, as implied by both CCA and simple correlation. This finding could be used as basic information for early assessment of environmental change and environmental restoration efforts around water source areas on pine forest plantations. Repetition of this study is suggested to be carried out in other pine forest areas, as each region sometimes has its own specific native and natural species.

Do people care about pine invasions? Visitor perceptions and willingness to pay for pine control in a protected area

Tree invasions are increasing globally, causing major problems for biodiversity, ecosystem services and human well-being. In South America, conifer invasions occur across many ecosystems and while numerous studies address the ecological consequences of these invasions, little is known about social perceptions and people's attitudes toward their control. The social perceptions on the effect of invasive conifers can include recreational, cultural and conservation dimensions. This study, conducted in the Malalcahuello National Reserve, aims to assess visitor's perception about invasive pines (Pinus spp.) and their effects on the endangered Araucaria araucana forests and determine their willingness to pay for pine control. We used a questionnaire to survey visitors to the reserve in both winter and summer (n = 138 for each season). When confronted with six images of araucaria and pine forests with and without snow, visitors consistently preferred landscapes without pines and disliked those completely dominated by pines the most. Almost half, 46.5%, of the visitors expressed their willingness to pay (WTP) for pine control and after given a brief explanation about pine impacts, this number rose to 79%. Visitors who said they were unwilling to pay argue ethical, aesthetic and pragmatic considerations relating closely to a number of social value systems and beliefs. Our study shows that there is a high variation in how people assess the threat of invasive pine species in natural areas, but education even in a very brief format can help to increase awareness of the problem and build social and financial support for its control.