Himalayan wolf foraging ecology and the importance of wild prey

Feeding Patterns of Three Widespread Carnivores—The Wolf, Snow Leopard, and Red Fox—in the Trans-Himalayan Landscape of India

The Trans-Himalayan landscape is an extreme cold desert with limited diversity and a low density of wild prey. The landscape has three widespread carnivores—the wolf Canis lupus chanco, snow leopard Panthera uncia, and red fox Vulpes vulpes—competing for similar prey. We studied predation patterns, dietary competition, and niche segregation of three sympatric carnivores in the Indian Trans-Himalayas. The Himalayan or wooly wolf is one of the oldest lineages and has adapted to extreme cold. We further studied the prey selection of the wolf in the high-altitude environment. We collected 1,600 carnivore scats (wolf = 542, snow leopard = 31, and red fox = 1,027), and additional data on 573 snow leopard scats from literature was used in the analyses. We found that livestock was a major contributor to the wolf (56.46%) and snow leopard diet (30.01%). The wolf consumed blue sheep (8.26%) and ibex (3.13%), whereas the snow leopard subsisted on blue sheep (30.79%) and ibex (17.15%), relatively more frequently. The red fox preyed upon small species like pika and marmots (18.85 %); however, livestock carrions (16.49%), fruits and seeds (15.05%), and human-derived material (11.89%) were also consumed frequently. The dietary niche of three carnivore species highly overlapped (Pianka's index = 0.503, simulated mean = 0.419, p = 0.15) due to livestock. The carnivores segregated their diet in prey items originating from the wild. We tested a relationship between carnivore diet variations and prey/predator functional traits using RLQ ordination. Predator morphology traits like body size, weight, and habitat preference significantly affected the prey selection (p < 0.05). The wolf and snow leopard avoided the competition through habitat selection, while the red fox coexisted by exploiting a broader niche. The wolf showed site-specific variation in prey preferences albeit no prey selection at the landscape level (G2 = 6.79, df = 12, p = 0.87). The wolf preferred wild prey over domestic species at the wild prey rich site. The carnivores in this pastoralist landscape have adapted to exploit livestock resources despite facing persecution. Therefore, managing livestock and simultaneously restoring wild prey is crucial for the conservation of the carnivore guild in the Trans-Himalayan ecosystem.

Modeling Potential Impacts of Climate Change on the Distribution of Wooly Wolf (Canis lupus chanco)

The Central Asian wolves form a cohort within the wolf-dog clade known as the wooly wolf (Canis lupus chanco). These wolves are poorly studied and their current extent and distribution remain unknown. Apex predators already existing at higher elevations like wooly wolves can be severely affected by climate change because of the absence of suitable refuge. Concomitantly, in the era of Anthropocene, the change in land use land cover (LULC) is rapidly increasing. Even the most adaptable species occurring in human-dominated landscapes may fail to survive under the combined impact of both climate change and human pressure. We collected 3,776 presence locations of the wooly wolf across its range from published literature and compiled 39 predictor variables for species distribution modeling, which included anthropogenic factors, climatic, vegetation, and topographic features. We predicted the change in their distribution under different anthropogenic factors, climate change, and land-use land-cover change scenarios. Wolf showed affinity toward areas with low to moderately warm temperatures and higher precipitations. It showed negative relationships with forests and farmlands. Our future projections showed an expansion of wolf distribution and habitat suitability under the combined effects of future climate and LULC change. Myanmar and Russia had the introduction of high and medium suitability areas for the wooly wolf in future scenarios. Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan showed the consistent loss in high suitability areas while Mongolia and Bhutan had the largest gain in high suitability areas. The study holds great significance for the protection and management of this species and also provides opportunities to explore the impact on associated species.

Comparative Ecological Perspectives of Two Ancient Lineages of Gray Wolves: Woolly Wolf (Canis lupus chanco) and Indian Wolf (Canis lupus pallipes)

Geographical isolation can often lead to speciation, and two disconnected populations of the same species living in drastically different bioclimatic regions provide an opportunity to understand the process of speciation. The Woolly wolf is found in the cold-arid, Trans-Himalayan landscape, while the Indian wolf inhabits the semi-arid grasslands of Central India. Both the lineages of wolves from India have generated scientific debate on their taxonomic status in recent years. In this study, we collected data and reviewed published literature to document the ecological and behavioral differences between the Woolly wolf and the Indian wolf. Most studies have used genetic data; hence we discuss variation in spatial ecology, habitat preferences, vocalization, diet diversity and cranial measurements of these two subspecies. The spatial ecology of two lineages was compared from the data on three Woolly and ten Indian wolves tagged with GPS collars. The telemetry data shows that there has been no difference in the day-night movement of Woolly wolves, whereas Indian wolves show significant high displacement during the night. The BBMM method indicated that Woolly wolf home ranges were three times larger than the Indian wolf. The Woolly wolf diet is comprised of 20 different types of food items, whereas the Indian wolf diet consists of 17 types. The Woolly and Indian wolf largely depend upon domestic prey base, i.e., 48.44 and 40.34%, respectively. We found no differences in the howling parameters of these subspecies. Moreover, the Woolly wolf skull was significantly longer and broader than the Indian wolf. Wolves of India are ancient and diverged from the main clade about 200,000–1,000,000 years ago. Their genetic and ecological evolution in different bioclimatic zones has resulted in considerable differences as distinct subspecies. The present study is a step in understanding ecological differences between two important, genetically unique subspecies of wolves.

Camera trapping reveals area of conservation significance for large and medium-sized mammals on the eastern Tibetan Plateau

The eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau, a global biodiversity hotspot, is threatened by habitat degradation. Conservation actions are required in this region, but limited knowledge of large and medium-sized mammals is hampering conservation planning. Using 149 camera traps, we surveyed large and medium-sized mammals in Xionglongxi Provincial Nature Reserve and adjacent areas, on the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau, during September 2016–May 2017. We obtained 5,752 independent captures of 29 large and medium-sized mammal species, including 13 that are globally threatened and 22 that are nationally threatened in China. Carnivores were especially diverse, with 16 species recorded. Of particular significance was our detection of seven felid species, including the leopard Panthera pardus and the snow leopard Panthera uncia. Our record of the Chinese mountain cat Felis bieti extends the known range of this species. We documented new upper elevation limits for eight species. There was elevational overlap between the leopard and the snow leopard, suggesting potential competition between the two species. The grey wolf Canis lupus and the leopard were the dominant predators, and the woolly hare Lepus oiostolus and several species of ungulates were the most frequently photographed prey species. The study area maintains a significant community of large and medium-sized mammals, which is more diverse than in other areas on the eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. We recommend the establishment of a larger nature reserve of national protection status in the region of the Xionglongxi Provincial Nature Reserve, to protect the unique subalpine and alpine ecosystems in this area.

Multiple factors influence local perceptions of snow leopards and Himalayan wolves in the central Himalayas, Nepal

An understanding of local perceptions of carnivores is important for conservation and management planning. In the central Himalayas, Nepal, we interviewed 428 individuals from 85 settlements using a semi-structured questionnaire to quantitatively assess local perceptions and tolerance of snow leopards and wolves. We used generalized linear mixed effect models to assess influential factors, and found that tolerance of snow leopards was much higher than of wolves. Interestingly, having experienced livestock losses had a minor impact on perceptions of the carnivores. Occupation of the respondents had a strong effect on perceptions of snow leopards but not of wolves. Literacy and age had weak impacts on snow leopard perceptions, but the interaction among these terms showed a marked effect, that is, being illiterate had a more marked negative impact among older respondents. Among the various factors affecting perceptions of wolves, numbers of livestock owned and gender were the most important predictors. People with larger livestock herds were more negative towards wolves. In terms of gender, males were more positive to wolves than females, but no such pattern was observed for snow leopards. People’s negative perceptions towards wolves were also related to the remoteness of the villages. Factors affecting people’s perceptions could not be generalized for the two species, and thus need to be addressed separately. We suggest future conservation projects and programs should prioritize remote settlements.

Molecular Recalcitrance of Hair Passing the Digestive System of a Canid

Hair is an important component in scat that is commonly used for prey analyses in carnivores. Chemically, hair predominately consists of keratin. The recalcitrant fiber protein is degraded in nature only by a few insects and soil microorganisms. Common proteases such as pepsin do not decompose keratin. Infrared spectroscopy was used to detect chemical differences caused by pretreatment and fate of hairs. Three sample sets were compared: original untreated hair, original milled hair, and hairs extracted from scats of golden jackals (Canis aureus L.). The results revealed that only milling affected the infrared spectral pattern, whereas digestion had no impact. Moreover, hairs from different species (e.g., boar) could be distinguished due to their spectral characteristics. They did not change through the passage of the digestive system.