Co-benefits and trade-offs of agroforestry for climate change mitigation and other sustainability goals in West Africa

Assessing Biodiversity Conditions in Cocoa Agroforests with a Rapid Assessment Method: Outcomes from a Large-Scale Application in Ghana

Cocoa fields in West Africa traditionally kept other tree species to provide shade for cocoa trees and obtain food and other products. Measuring other trees is paramount to monitoring environmental conditions in cocoa agroforests, but it has been difficult to apply at a large scale. This study presents the results of a rapid assessment method applied in Ghana, developed to measure non-cocoa tree characteristics based on easily observed parameters using sample surveys and mapping tools. We collected data from over 8700 cocoa farms and evaluated their biodiversity performance based on 6 indicators classified according to recommended thresholds to benefit biodiversity conditions. Our results show that species richness, shade cover, and potential for tree succession have the lowest proportions of fields with the recommended levels, with variations among regions and districts. The methodological procedure allowed us to identify priority areas and indicators falling behind desirable thresholds, which can inform training and management approaches regarding biodiversity-friendly practices in cocoa fields tailored to the needs of the farmers. The analysis procedure was developed with open-access automated routines, allowing for easy updates and replication to other areas, as well as for other commodities, enabling comparisons at different spatial scales and contributing to monitoring biodiversity over time.

Yield and related traits of three legume crops grown in olive-based agroforestry under an intense drought in the South Mediterranean

Heat and drought stresses have become more frequent and intense in the Mediterranean, strongly influencing arable crop phenology, growth, and grain yield. Agroforestry systems can effectively buffer the adverse climate conditions and stabilize or even increase crop yield under climate change. However, the positive effects of agroforestry remain uncertain due to the possible intense competition between trees and crops, especially for legume crops that have been less studied than cereals in such context. This study aimed to assess the response of the phenology, growth, grain yield, and yield-related traits of chickpea (Cicer arietinum), faba bean (Vicia faba), and lentil (Lens culinaris) to olive-based agroforestry (AFS) as compared to sole crops system (SCS) in the South of the Mediterranean. We conducted a field experiment during two growing seasons marked by an intense drought, either at the beginning (year 1) or at the end (year 2) of the crop cycle. Crop growth and yield were lower in year 1 than in year 2, reflecting the adverse growing conditions caused by the early drought. They were also lower in AFS than in SCS for both years, indicating that trees had competitive effects on crops. In year 1, the yield loss of grains in AFS was 66 % for lentil, 47 % for chickpea, and 43 % for faba bean compared to SCS, confirming the greater shade sensitivity of lentil. In year 2, the reduction was significantly smaller and was about 46 %, 34 %, 38 % for lentil, chickpea and, faba bean, respectively. The number of pods and grains were the most affected yield components by agroforestry and drought timing across the three legumes crops. Similar responses were found when comparing crops at different distances to trees within the AFS field. Crops generally had lower biomass and yield, explained by fewer pods and grains, on the northern side of trees compared to the southern side of trees or the middle of tree inter-rows, causing significant spatial heterogeneity in crops. However, lentil and chickpea had a positive response to shade during the early drought year while a negative response during the late drought year, suggesting that the benefits of the microclimate created by olive trees express depending on drought timing and crop physiology. Our study supports legume integration into AFS, suggesting that chickpea should be considered during high-stress conditions, while faba bean should be preferred during low-stress conditions.

Adaptation to compound climate risks: A systematic global stocktake

This article provides a stocktake of the adaptation literature between 2013 and 2019 to better understand how adaptation responses affect risk under the particularly challenging conditions of compound climate events. Across 39 countries, 45 response types to compound hazards display anticipatory (9%), reactive (33%), and maladaptive (41%) characteristics, as well as hard (18%) and soft (68%) limits to adaptation. Low income, food insecurity, and access to institutional resources and finance are the most prominent of 23 vulnerabilities observed to negatively affect responses. Risk for food security, health, livelihoods, and economic outputs are commonly associated risks driving responses. Narrow geographical and sectoral foci of the literature highlight important conceptual, sectoral, and geographic areas for future research to better understand the way responses shape risk. When responses are integrated within climate risk assessment and management, there is greater potential to advance the urgency of response and safeguards for the most vulnerable.

Estimation of Aboveground Biomass in Agroforestry Systems over Three Climatic Regions in West Africa Using Sentinel-1, Sentinel-2, ALOS, and GEDI Data

Agroforestry systems (AFS) offer viable solutions for climate change because of the aboveground biomass (AGB) that is maintained by the tree component. Therefore, spatially explicit estimation of their AGB is crucial for reporting emission reduction efforts, which can be enabled using remote sensing (RS) data and methods. However, multiple factors including the spatial distributions within the AFS, their structure, their composition, and their variable extents hinder an accurate RS-assisted estimation of the AGB across AFS. The aim of this study is to (i) evaluate the potential of spaceborne optical, SAR and LiDAR data for AGB estimations in AFS and (ii) estimate the AGB of different AFS in various climatic regions. The study was carried out in three climatic regions covering Côte d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso. Two AGB reference data sources were assessed: (i) AGB estimations derived from field measurements using allometric equations and (ii) AGB predictions from the GEDI level 4A (L4A) product. Vegetation indices and texture parameters were generated from optical (Sentinel-2) and SAR data (Sentinel-1 and ALOS-2) respectively and were used as predictors. Machine learning regression models were trained and evaluated by means of the coefficient of determination (R²) and the RMSE. It was found that the prediction error was reduced by 31.2% after the stratification based on the climatic conditions. For the AGB prediction, the combination of random forest algorithm and Sentinel-1 and -2 data returned the best score. The GEDI L4A product was applicable only in the Guineo-Congolian region, but the prediction error was approx. nine times higher than the ground truth. Moreover, the AGB level varied across AFS including cocoa (7.51 ± 0.6 Mg ha^-1) and rubber (7.33 ± 0.33 Mg ha^-1) in the Guineo-Congolian region, cashew (13.78 ± 0.98 Mg ha^-1) and mango (12.82 ± 0.65 Mg ha^-1) in the Guinean region. The AFS farms in the Sudanian region showed the highest AGB level (6.59 to 82.11 Mg ha^-1). AGB in an AFS was mainly determined by the diameter (R² = 0.45), the height (R² = 0.13) and the tree density (R² = 0.10). Nevertheless, RS-based estimation of AGB remain challenging because of the spectral similarities between AFS. Therefore, spatial assessment of the prediction uncertainties should complement AGB maps in AFS.

A Review of an Artificial Intelligence Framework for Identifying the Most Effective Palm Oil Prediction

Machine Learning (ML) offers new precision technologies with intelligent algorithms and robust computation. This technology benefits various agricultural industries, such as the palm oil sector, which possesses one of the most sustainable industries worldwide. Hence, an in-depth analysis was conducted, which is derived from previous research on ML utilisation in the palm oil in-dustry. The study provided a brief overview of widely used features and prediction algorithms and critically analysed current the state of ML-based palm oil prediction. This analysis is extended to the ML application in the palm oil industry and a comparison of related studies. The analysis was predicated on thoroughly examining the advantages and disadvantages of ML-based palm oil prediction and the proper identification of current and future agricultural industry challenges. Potential solutions for palm oil prediction were added to this list. Artificial intelligence and ma-chine vision were used to develop intelligent systems, revolutionising the palm oil industry. Overall, this article provided a framework for future research in the palm oil agricultural industry by highlighting the importance of ML.

Biodiversity Conservation of National Parks and Nature-Protected Areas in West Africa: The Case of Kainji National Park, Nigeria

Due to rising global warming and climate change, biodiversity protection has become a critical ecological concern. Rich biodiversity zones are under threat and are deteriorating, necessitating national, regional, and provincial efforts to safeguard these natural areas. The effective conservation of national parks and nature-protected areas help to improve biodiversity conservation, forest, and urban air quality. The continuous encroachment and abuse of these protected areas have degraded the ecosystem over time. While exploring the geophysical ecology and biodiversity conservation of these areas in West Africa, Kainji National Park was selected for this study because of its notable location, naturalness, rich habitat diversity, topographic uniqueness, and landmass. The conservation of national parks and nature-protected areas is a cornerstone of biodiversity conservation globally. This study is aimed at the target United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 13, 2030—Climate Action targeted at taking urgent action towards combating climate change and its impacts. The study captures both flora and fauna that are dominant in the study area. The 15 identified tree species were selected from over 30 species with 563,500,000 (an average of 3,700,000 in each sample frame) trees for every tree species/type with a total of 63% tree green canopy cover. The study areas divided into three zones were randomly sampled within a stratum of 25 × 25 km frames divided into 150 sample frames for proper analyses using the i-Tree Eco v6.0.25. It is a United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service peer-reviewed application (software) designed which includes tools for urban and rural forestry study and benefits evaluations. The following microclimatic data were captured and analyzed photosynthetically active radiation, rain/precipitation, temperature, transpiration, evaporation, water intercepted by trees, runoff avoided by trees, potential evaporation by trees, and isoprene and monoterpene by trees. This study also further discusses the tree benefits of a green, low carbon, and sustainable environment within the context of biodiversity conservation, considering carbon storage, carbon sequestration, hydrology effects, pollution removal, oxygen production, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). There is a quick need for remotely-sensed information about the national parks, protected areas and nature reserves at regular intervals, and government policies must be strict against illegal poaching, logging activities, and other hazardous human impacts.

Asymmetric Effects of Economic Development, Agroforestry Development, Energy Consumption, and Population Size on CO2 Emissions in China

The COVID-19 epidemic and the Russian–Ukrainian conflict have led to a global food and energy crisis, making the world aware of the importance of agroforestry development for a country. Modern agriculture mechanization leads to massive energy consumption and increased CO2 emissions. At the same time, China is facing serious demographic problems and a lack of consumption in the domestic market. The Chinese government is faced with the dilemma of balancing environmental protection with economic development in the context of the “double carbon” strategy. This article uses annual World Bank statistics from 1990 to 2020 to study the asymmetric relationships between agroforestry development, energy consumption, population size, and economic development on CO2 emissions in China using the partial least squares path model (PLS-PM), the autoregressive VAR vector time series model, and the Granger causality test. The results are as follows: (1) The relationship between economic development and carbon dioxide emissions, agroforestry development and carbon dioxide emissions, energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions, and population size and carbon dioxide emissions are both direct and indirect, with an overall significant positive effect. There is a direct negative relationship between population size and carbon dioxide emissions. (2) The results of the Granger causality test show that economic development, energy consumption, and CO2 emissions are the causes of the development of agroforestry; economic development, agroforestry development, population size, and CO2 emissions are the causes of energy consumption; energy consumption is the cause of economic development and CO2 emissions; and agroforestry development is the cause of population size and energy consumption. (3) In the next three years, China’s agroforestry development will be influenced by the impulse response of economic development, energy consumption, and CO2 emission factors, showing a decreasing development trend. China’s energy consumption will be influenced by the impulse response of economic development, agroforestry development, population size, and CO2 emission factors, showing a decreasing development trend, followed by an increasing development trend. China’s CO2 emission will be influenced by the impulse response of energy consumption and agroforestry development. China’s CO2 emissions will be influenced by the impulse response of energy consumption and agroforestry development factors, showing a downward and then an upward development trend.

Consistent cooling benefits of silvopasture in the tropics

Agroforestry systems have the potential to sequester carbon and offer numerous benefits to rural communities, but their capacity to offer valuable cooling services has not been quantified on continental scales. Here, we find that trees in pasturelands (“silvopasture”) across Latin America and Africa can offer substantial cooling benefits. These cooling benefits increase linearly by −0.32 °C to −2.4 °C per 10 metric tons of woody carbon per hectare, and importantly do not depend on the spatial extent of the silvopasture systems. Thus, even smallholders can reap important cooling services from intensifying their silvopasture practices. We then map where realistic (but ambitious) silvopasture expansion could counteract a substantial fraction of the local projected warming in 2050 due to climate change. Our findings indicate where and to what extent silvopasture systems can counteract local temperature increases from global climate change and help vulnerable communities adapt to a warming world.

A new study shows that tropical silvopasture systems can provide significant cooling services for local communities, and identifies where these silvopasture systems can most effectively counteract global climate change to help communities adapt to warming.

Beyond livestock carrying capacity in the Sahelian and Sudanian zones of West Africa

We applied the process-based model, LandscapeDNDC, to estimate feed availability in the Sahelian and Sudanian agro-ecological zones of West Africa as a basis for calculating the regional Livestock Carrying Capacity (LCC). Comparison of the energy supply (S) from feed resources, including natural pasture, browse, and crop residues, with energy demand (D) of the livestock population for the period 1981-2020 allowed us to assess regional surpluses (S > D) or deficits (S < D) in feed availability. We show that in the last 40 years a large-scale shift from surplus to deficit has occurred. While during 1981-1990 only 27% of the area exceeded the LCC, it was 72% for the period 2011-2020. This was caused by a reduction in the total feed supply of ~ 8% and an increase in feed demand of ~ 37% per-decade, driven by climate change and increased livestock population, respectively. Overall, the S/D decreased from ~ 2.6 (surplus) in 1981 to ~ 0.5 (deficit) in 2019, with a north-south gradient of increasing S/D. As climate change continues and feed availability may likely further shrink, pastoralists either need to source external feed or significantly reduce livestock numbers to avoid overgrazing, land degradation, and any further conflicts for resources.

A Review of the Trade-Offs across Different Cocoa Production Systems in Ghana

Cocoa production is one of the leading causes of deforestation in West Africa. Agroforestry cocoa systems are increasingly promoted as a possible solution to deforestation. This study seeks to understand the trade-offs within agroforestry cocoa in full-sun and high-tech plantation cocoa systems in Ghana. It uses secondary data collected from an extensive literature search. The results established various trade-offs between cocoa yields and other provisioning services derived from the agroforestry services. While the cocoa yields in high-tech systems are almost thrice those in agroforestry systems, the total value of all the provisioning services is highest within the shaded systems. The economic value of per hectarage yield is estimated at USD 8140, USD 5320 and USD 5050 for shaded, full-sun and high-tech systems, respectively. Agroforestry systems also have higher ecosystem services compared to full-sun cocoa and high-tech cocoa systems. The high pesticide use in Ghana′s high-tech cocoa systems is also strongly linked to water and soil pollution, as well as adverse effects on human health. The study concludes that different cocoa production systems in Ghana yield different types of ecosystem provision and are associated with externalities such as the effect of pesticides on soils, water and human health, thus there is a need for the careful consideration of the system from policy and practice perspectives.

Simulating Agroforestry Adoption in Rural Indonesia: The Potential of Trees on Farms for Livelihoods and Environment

In recent years, agroforestry has gained increasing attention as an option to simultaneously alleviate poverty, provide ecological benefits, and mitigate climate change. The present study simulates small-scale farmers’ agroforestry adoption decisions to investigate the consequences for livelihoods and the environment over time. To explore the interdependencies between agroforestry adoption, livelihoods, and the environment, an agent-based model adjusted to a case study area in rural Indonesia was implemented. Thereby, the model compares different scenarios, including a climate change scenario. The agroforestry system under investigation consists of an illipe (Shorea stenoptera) rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) mix, which are both locally valued tree species. The simulations reveal that farmers who adopt agroforestry diversify their livelihood portfolio while increasing income. Additionally, the model predicts environmental benefits: enhanced biodiversity and higher carbon sequestration in the landscape. The benefits of agroforestry for livelihoods and nature gain particular importance in the climate change scenario. The results therefore provide policy-makers and practitioners with insights into the dynamic economic and environmental advantages of promoting agroforestry.

Agroforestry to Achieve Global Climate Adaptation and Mitigation Targets: Are South Asian Countries Sufficiently Prepared?

Traditional agroforestry systems across South Asia have historically supported millions of smallholding farmers. Since, 2007 agroforestry has received attention in global climate discussions for its carbon sink potential. Agroforestry plays a defining role in offsetting greenhouse gases, providing sustainable livelihoods, localizing Sustainable Development Goals and achieving biodiversity targets. The review explores evidence of agroforestry systems for human well-being along with its climate adaptation and mitigation potential for South Asia. In particular, we explore key enabling and constraining conditions for mainstreaming agroforestry systems to use them to fulfill global climate mitigation targets. Nationally determined contributions submitted by South Asian countries to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change acknowledge agroforestry systems. In 2016, South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation’s Resolution on Agroforestry brought consensus on developing national agroforestry policies by all regional countries and became a strong enabling condition to ensure effectiveness of using agroforestry for climate targets. Lack of uniform methodologies for creation of databases to monitor tree and soil carbon stocks was found to be a key limitation for the purpose. Water scarcity, lack of interactive governance, rights of farmers and ownership issues along with insufficient financial support to rural farmers for agroforestry were other constraining conditions that should be appropriately addressed by the regional countries to develop their preparedness for achieving national climate ambitions. Our review indicates the need to shift from planning to the implementation phase following strong examples shared from India and Nepal, including carbon neutrality scenarios, incentives and sustainable local livelihood to enhance preparedness.

Contributions of African Crops to American Culture and Beyond: The Slave Trade and Other Journeys of Resilient Peoples and Crops

There is a general unawareness of food crops indigenous to the African continent that have contributed to Western culture. This under-appreciation is particularly relevant in the current context of societal movements to end historic racism and value the contributions of peoples of African origin and African skin colors. Lack of awareness of the contributions of Africa's crops has negative practical consequences, including inadequate investments in preserving and maximizing the use of crop diversity to facilitate breeding. This paper provides an overview and analysis of African crops that have made significant contributions to the United States and globally, and/or hold potential in the twenty-first century. The paper specifically discusses watermelon, coffee, kola, rooibos, oil palm, shea, cowpea/black eyed pea, leafy greens, okra, yam, sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, teff, and fonio. The review focuses on the intersection of these crops with racialized peoples, with a particular focus on African-Americans starting with slavery. The analysis includes the sites of domestication of African crops, their historical migration out of Africa, their sociocultural contributions to cuisines and products around the world, their uses today, and the indigenous knowledge associated with traditional cultivation and landrace selection. The untapped potential of local genetic resources and indigenous agronomic strategies are also described. The review demonstrates that African crops played an important role in the development of American cuisine, beverages and household products. Many of these crops are nutritious, high value and stress tolerant. The paper concludes that African crops hold significant promise in improving the resiliency of global food production systems, to mitigate climate change and alleviate food insecurity and rural poverty, especially in dry regions of the world. It is hoped that this review contributes to teaching the next generation of agriculturalists, food scientists and international development professionals about the valuable contributions of Africa's resilient crops and peoples.

Balancing the benefits from the water-energy-land-food nexus through agroforestry in the Sahel

Regions affected by resource scarcity, poverty, and land-use conflicts need to advocate the merits of practices strongly grounded in sustainable land management. This review paper provides an analysis of agroforestry as an integrated system embedded in complex relations between resource uses in the Water-Energy-Land-Food (WELF) nexus. Using the African Sahel region as a case study, the paper explains the need for understanding land management practices, such as agroforestry, through the lens of trade-offs and benefits inherent in the WELF nexus. Agroforestry practices are demonstrated to be valuable interventions leading to i) resilience to climate stresses, ii) water, energy, and food securities, iii) mitigation of resource-oriented harbingers of conflicts and iv) development opportunities. These goals can also yield valuable results in terms of promoting sustainable development, i.e. functional ecosystems, livelihoods, and human security. Two overarching sub-nexuses, namely agroforestry-food-energy and agroforestry-food-water-climate, are identified in the Sahelian context and conceptualized. Primarily, the trade-offs outlined within these sub-nexuses are fuelwood vs. crops, use of land for more forests vs. more cropping, and water availability for agroforestry vs. agroforestry impacts on the water cycle. Despite the positive outcomes and opportunities, agroforestry systems in the Sahel still face some challenges such as vague land use rights, inadequate capacities and lack of investments. Policy recommendations are synthesized at three levels. This synthesis involves remedies to lessen pressures at the interlinks of WELF resource use, overarching remedies in the two sub-nexuses, and remedies across all the sectors and issues for improving agroforestry outcomes. Optimal remedies stress the importance of choosing the right land, water and plant combinations as well as incorporating efficiency measures and alternative sources. A successful agroforestry system is characterized by a conducive environment at the farm level in terms of institutions, management, enhancing the farmer's capacity, and good infrastructure.

Beyond Sustainability in Food Systems: Perspectives from Agroecology and Social Innovation

Food security faces many multifaceted challenges, with effects ranging far beyond the sectors of agriculture and food science and involving all the multiscale components of sustainability. This paper puts forward our point of view about more sustainable and responsible approaches to food production research underlying the importance of knowledge and social innovation in agroecological practices. Increased demand for food worldwide and the diversification of food choices would suggest the adoption of highly productive, but low-resilient and unsustainable food production models. However, new perspectives are possible. These include the revitalization and valorization of family-based traditional agriculture and the promotion of diversified farming systems as a social and economic basis to foster social-ecological conversion. Additionally, they encompass the forecasting of the Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS) and the drafting of a new agenda for food sovereignty. Thanks to a desk analysis, the study describes and discusses these perspectives, their trajectories and action research implications. The results suggest the need to adopt a more inclusive and systemic approach to the described problems, as the solutions require the promotion of responsibility within decision makers, professionals and consumers. This appears essential for reading, analyzing and understanding the complex ecological-functional, social and economic relations that characterize farming systems, as well as mobilizing local communities.