Regulation of the EcoRI restriction-modification system: Identification of ecoRIM gene promoters and their upstream negative regulators in the ecoRIR gene

Cells with stochastically increased methyltransferase to restriction endonuclease ratio provide an entry for bacteriophage into protected cell population

The action of Type II restriction-modification (RM) systems depends on restriction endonuclease (REase), which cleaves foreign DNA at specific sites, and methyltransferase (MTase), which protects host genome from restriction by methylating the same sites. We here show that protection from phage infection increases as the copy number of plasmids carrying the Type II RM Esp1396I system is increased. However, since increased plasmid copy number leads to both increased absolute intracellular RM enzyme levels and to a decreased MTase/REase ratio, it is impossible to determine which factor determines resistance/susceptibility to infection. By controlled expression of individual Esp1396I MTase or REase genes in cells carrying the Esp1396I system, we show that a shift in the MTase to REase ratio caused by overproduction of MTase or REase leads, respectively, to decreased or increased protection from infection. Consistently, due to stochastic variation of MTase and REase amount in individual cells, bacterial cells that are productively infected by bacteriophage have significantly higher MTase to REase ratios than cells that ward off the infection. Our results suggest that cells with transiently increased MTase to REase ratio at the time of infection serve as entry points for unmodified phage DNA into protected bacterial populations.

No-nonspecific recognition-based amplification strategy for endonuclease activity screening with dual-color DNA nano-clew

The inevitable nonspecific recognition severely restricted widely used nucleic acid amplification strategies, which has become an urgent problem in current scientific research. Herein, we developed a novel no-nonspecific recognition-based amplification strategy to construct dual-color dye loaded nano-clew as ultrabright illuminant for screening endonuclease activity with Escherichia coliRY13 I (EcoR I) as a model, which overcame some major drawbacks such as nonspecific recognition and photobleaching. Typically, the target endonuclease induces cleavage of the customized dumbbell-shape substrate (DSS) to generate two same triggers that can initiate the rolling circle amplification (RCA) to prepare long single-strand DNA (lssDNA), which could self-assemble into irregular DNA nano-clew based on the electrostatic interactions with Mg²⁺ to furtherly capture the donor and accepter fluorophore proximately, constructing the dye loaded nano-clew with dual-color fluorescence (FL) emission to resist photobleaching. Importantly, in absence of EcoR I, even if the DSS could combine with circular template a little, the reaction system performed hardly RCA reaction due to no cohesive terminus, resulting an extremely low background fluorescence signal because of the prevention of nonspecific RCA reaction. As expected, the proposed sensing platform with a low limit of detection (LOD) of 3.4 × 10^-7 U/μL was demonstrated to work well for endonuclease inhibitors screening also. Furthermore, the proposed no-nonspecific recognition strategy could be readily extended to various DNA or RNA enzymes such as DNA methyltransferase, DNA repair-related enzymes and polynucleotide kinase just by simply changing the recognition sequence in the DNA substrate, performing great potential of endonucleases-related clinical diagnosis and drugs discovery.

Low-level expression of the Type II restriction-modification system confers potent bacteriophage resistance in Escherichia coli

Restriction–modification systems (R–M) are one of the antiviral defense tools used by bacteria, and those of the Type II family are composed of a restriction endonuclease (REase) and a DNA methyltransferase (MTase). Most entering DNA molecules are usually cleaved by the REase before they can be methylated by MTase, although the observed level of fragmented DNA may vary significantly. Using a model EcoRI R–M system, we report that the balance between DNA methylation and cleavage may be severely affected by transcriptional signals coming from outside the R–M operon. By modulating the activity of the promoter, we obtained a broad range of restriction phenotypes for the EcoRI R–M system that differed by up to 4 orders of magnitude in our biological assays. Surprisingly, we found that high expression levels of the R–M proteins were associated with reduced restriction of invading bacteriophage DNA. Our results suggested that the regulatory balance of cleavage and methylation was highly sensitive to fluctuations in transcriptional signals both up- and downstream of the R–M operon. Our data provided further insights into Type II R–M system maintenance and the potential conflict within the host bacterium.

Natural C-independent expression of restriction endonuclease in a C protein-associated restriction-modification system

Restriction-modification (R-M) systems are highly prevalent among bacteria and archaea, and appear to play crucial roles in modulating horizontal gene transfer and protection against phage. There is much to learn about these diverse enzymes systems, especially their regulation. Type II R-M systems specify two independent enzymes: a restriction endonuclease (REase) and protective DNA methyltransferase (MTase). Their activities need to be finely balanced in vivo Some R-M systems rely on specialized transcription factors called C (controller) proteins. These proteins play a vital role in the temporal regulation of R-M gene expression, and function to indirectly modulate the horizontal transfer of their genes across the species. We report novel regulation of a C-responsive R-M system that involves a C protein of a poorly-studied structural class - C.Csp231I. Here, the C and REase genes share a bicistronic transcript, and some of the transcriptional auto-control features seen in other C-regulated R-M systems are conserved. However, separate tandem promoters drive most transcription of the REase gene, a distinctive property not seen in other tested C-linked R-M systems. Further, C protein only partially controls REase expression, yet plays a role in system stability and propagation. Consequently, high REase activity was observed after deletion of the entire C gene, and cells bearing the ΔC R-M system were outcompeted in mixed culture assays by those with the WT R-M system. Overall, our data reveal unexpected regulatory variation among R-M systems.

Highlights of the DNA cutters: a short history of the restriction enzymes

In the early 1950's, 'host-controlled variation in bacterial viruses' was reported as a non-hereditary phenomenon: one cycle of viral growth on certain bacterial hosts affected the ability of progeny virus to grow on other hosts by either restricting or enlarging their host range. Unlike mutation, this change was reversible, and one cycle of growth in the previous host returned the virus to its original form. These simple observations heralded the discovery of the endonuclease and methyltransferase activities of what are now termed Type I, II, III and IV DNA restriction-modification systems. The Type II restriction enzymes (e.g. EcoRI) gave rise to recombinant DNA technology that has transformed molecular biology and medicine. This review traces the discovery of restriction enzymes and their continuing impact on molecular biology and medicine.

To be or not to be: regulation of restriction-modification systems and other toxin-antitoxin systems

One of the simplest classes of genes involved in programmed death is that containing the toxin–antitoxin (TA) systems of prokaryotes. These systems are composed of an intracellular toxin and an antitoxin that neutralizes its effect. These systems, now classified into five types, were initially discovered because some of them allow the stable maintenance of mobile genetic elements in a microbial population through postsegregational killing or the death of cells that have lost these systems. Here, we demonstrate parallels between some TA systems and restriction–modification systems (RM systems). RM systems are composed of a restriction enzyme (toxin) and a modification enzyme (antitoxin) and limit the genetic flux between lineages with different epigenetic identities, as defined by sequence-specific DNA methylation. The similarities between these systems include their postsegregational killing and their effects on global gene expression. Both require the finely regulated expression of a toxin and antitoxin. The antitoxin (modification enzyme) or linked protein may act as a transcriptional regulator. A regulatory antisense RNA recently identified in an RM system can be compared with those RNAs in TA systems. This review is intended to generalize the concept of TA systems in studies of stress responses, programmed death, genetic conflict and epigenetics.

Antisense RNA associated with biological regulation of a restriction-modification system

Restriction–modification systems consist of a modification enzyme that methylates a specific DNA sequence and a restriction endonuclease that cleaves DNA lacking this epigenetic signature. Their gene expression should be finely regulated because their potential to attack the host bacterial genome needs to be controlled. In the EcoRI system, where the restriction gene is located upstream of the modification gene in the same orientation, we previously identified intragenic reverse promoters affecting gene expression. In the present work, we identified a small (88 nt) antisense RNA (Rna0) transcribed from a reverse promoter (P_REV0) at the 3′ end of the restriction gene. Its antisense transcription, as measured by transcriptional gene fusion, appeared to be terminated by the P_M1,M2 promoter. P_M1,M2 promoter-initiated transcription, in turn, appeared to be inhibited by P_REV0. Mutational inactivation of P_REV0 increased expression of the restriction gene. The biological significance of this antisense transcription is 2-fold. First, a mutation in P_REV0 increased restriction of incoming DNA. Second, the presence of the antisense RNA gene (ecoRIA) in trans alleviated cell killing after loss of the EcoRI plasmid (post-segregational killing). Taken together, these results strongly suggested the involvement of an antisense RNA in the biological regulation of this restriction–modification system.

Regulation of gene expression in restriction-modification system Eco29kI

The Eco29kI restriction-modification (R-M) system consists of two partially overlapping genes, eco29kIR, encoding a restriction endonuclease and eco29kIM, encoding methyltransferase. The two genes are thought to form an operon with the eco29kIR gene preceding the eco29kIM gene. Such an organization is expected to complicate establishment of plasmids containing this R-M system in naive hosts, since common logic dictates that methyltransferase should be synthesized first to protect the DNA from cleavage by the endonuclease. Here, we characterize the Eco29kI gene transcription. We show that a separate promoter located within the eco29kIR gene is sufficient to synthesize enough methyltransferase to completely modify host DNA. We further show that transcription from two intragenic antisense promoters strongly decreases the levels of eco29kIR gene transcripts. The antisense transcripts act by preventing translation initiation from the bicistronic eco29kIR–eco29kIM mRNA and causing its degradation. Both eco29kIM and antisense promoters are necessary for Eco29kI genes establishment and/or stable maintenance, indicating that they jointly contribute to coordinated expression of Eco29kI genes.

Tuning the relative affinities for activating and repressing operators of a temporally regulated restriction-modification system

Most type II restriction-modification (R-M) systems produce separate endonuclease (REase) and methyltransferase (MTase) proteins. After R-M genes enter a new cell, MTase activity must appear before REase or the host chromosome will be cleaved. Temporal control of these genes thus has life-or-death consequences. PvuII and some other R-M systems delay endonuclease expression by cotranscribing the REase gene with the upstream gene for an autogenous activator/repressor (C protein). C.PvuII was previously shown to have low levels early, but positive feedback later boosts transcription of the C and REase genes. The MTase is expressed without delay, and protects the host DNA. C.PvuII binds to two sites upstream of its gene: O_L, associated with activation, and O_R, associated with repression. Even when symmetry elements of each operator are made identical, C.PvuII binds preferentially to O_L. In this study, the intra-operator spacers are shown to modulate relative C.PvuII affinity. In light of a recently reported C.Esp1396I-DNA co-crystal structure, in vitro and in vivo effects of altering O_L and O_R spacers were determined. The results suggest that the GACTnnnAGTC consensus is the primary determinant of C.PvuII binding affinity, with intra-operator spacers playing a fine-tuning role that affects mobility of this R-M system.

Real-time kinetics of restriction-modification gene expression after entry into a new host cell

Most type II restriction-modification (R-M) systems produce separate restriction endonuclease (REase) and methyltransferase (MTase) proteins. After R-M system genes enter a new cell, protective MTase must appear before REase to avoid host chromosome cleavage. The basis for this apparent temporal regulation is not well understood. PvuII and some other R-M systems appear to achieve this delay by cotranscribing the REase gene with the gene for an autogenous transcription activator/repressor (the 'C' protein C.PvuII). To test this model, bacteriophage M13 was used to introduce the PvuII genes into a bacterial population in a relatively synchronous manner. REase mRNA and activity appeared approximately 10 min after those of the MTase, but never rose if there was an inactivating pvuIIC mutation. Infection with recombinant M13pvuII phage had little effect on cell growth, relative to infection with parental M13. However, infection of cells pre-expressing C.PvuII led to cessation of growth. This study presents the first direct demonstration of delayed REase expression, relative to MTase, when type II R-M genes enter a new host cell. Surprisingly, though the C and REase genes are cotranscribed, the pvuIIC portion of the mRNA was more abundant than the pvuIIR portion after stable establishment of the R-M system.

Maintenance forced by a restriction-modification system can be modulated by a region in its modification enzyme not essential for methyltransferase activity

Several type II restriction-modification gene complexes can force their maintenance on their host bacteria by killing cells that have lost them in a process called postsegregational killing or genetic addiction. It is likely to proceed by dilution of the modification enzyme molecule during rounds of cell division following the gene loss, which exposes unmethylated recognition sites on the newly replicated chromosomes to lethal attack by the remaining restriction enzyme molecules. This process is in apparent contrast to the process of the classical types of postsegregational killing systems, in which built-in metabolic instability of the antitoxin allows release of the toxin for lethal action after the gene loss. In the present study, we characterize a mutant form of the EcoRII gene complex that shows stronger capacity in such maintenance. This phenotype is conferred by an L80P amino acid substitution (T239C nucleotide substitution) mutation in the modification enzyme. This mutant enzyme showed decreased DNA methyltransferase activity at a higher temperature in vivo and in vitro than the nonmutated enzyme, although a deletion mutant lacking the N-terminal 83 amino acids did not lose activity at either of the temperatures tested. Under a condition of inhibited protein synthesis, the activity of the L80P mutant was completely lost at a high temperature. In parallel, the L80P mutant protein disappeared more rapidly than the wild-type protein. These results demonstrate that the capability of a restriction-modification system in forcing maintenance on its host can be modulated by a region of its antitoxin, the modification enzyme, as in the classical postsegregational killing systems.

Regulatory circuit based on autogenous activation-repression: roles of C-boxes and spacer sequences in control of the PvuII restriction-modification system

Type II restriction-modification (R-M) systems comprise a restriction endonuclease (REase) and a protective methyltransferase (MTase). After R-M genes enter a new cell, MTase must appear before REase or the chromosome will be cleaved. PvuII and some other R-M systems achieve this delay by cotranscribing the REase gene with the gene for an autogenous transcription activator (the controlling or 'C' protein C.PvuII). This study reveals, through in vivo titration, that C.PvuII is not only an activator but also a repressor for its own gene. In other systems, this type of circuit can result in oscillatory behavior. Despite the use of identical, symmetrical C protein-binding sequences (C-boxes) in the left and right operators, C.PvuII showed higher in vitro affinity for O(L) than for O(R), implicating the spacer sequences in this difference. Mutational analysis associated the repression with O(R), which overlaps the promoter -35 hexamer but is otherwise dispensable for activation. A nonrepressing mutant exhibited poor establishment in new cells. Comparing promoter-operator regions from PvuII and 29 R-M systems controlled by C proteins revealed that the most-highly conserved sequence is the tetranucleotide spacer separating O(L) from O(R). Any changes in that spacer reduced the stability of C.PvuII-operator complexes and abolished activation.