Exosome subpopulations: The isolation and the functions in diseases

Insights into tumor-derived exosome inhibition in cancer therapy

Exosomes are critical mediators of cell-to-cell communication in physiological and pathological processes, due to their ability to deliver a variety of bioactive molecules. Tumor-derived exosomes (TDEs), in particular, carry carcinogenic molecules that contribute to tumor progression, metastasis, immune escape, and drug resistance. Thus, TDE inhibition has emerged as a promising strategy to combat cancer. In this review, we discuss the key mechanisms of TDE biogenesis and secretion, emphasizing their implications in tumorigenesis and cancer progression. Moreover, we provide an overview of small-molecule TDE inhibitors that target specific biogenesis and/or secretion pathways, highlighting their potential use in cancer treatment. Lastly, we present the existing obstacles and propose corresponding remedies for the future development of TDE inhibitors.

Cardiac Cell Membrane-Coated Nanoparticles as a Potential Targeted Delivery System for Cardiac Therapy

Cardiomyopathies, a cause of heart failure, are a predominant cause of death globally and may lead to discernible myocardial abnormalities. Several therapeutic agents were discovered, developed, investigated, and evaluated to save patients' lives and improve their quality of life. The effective administration of drugs improves therapeutic outcomes while reducing side effects. Nanoparticles (NPs) have been utilised for the delivery of therapeutic agents and demonstrate promise in reducing myocardial ischaemia/reperfusion injury. However, significant limitations of NPs include non-specific targeting and immunogenicity. To improve cardiac targeting and biocompatibility, surface modifications using a cardiac cell membrane (cCM) coating on the surface of NPs have been hypothesised. Here, cCMs were isolated from the human ventricular cell line (AC16), and mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) were synthesised and then coated with cCMs. The cardiac cell membrane-coated mesoporous silica nanoparticles (cCMCMSNs) did not significantly alter the encapsulation efficiency or the release profile of the loaded drug (Rhodamine B) in comparison to MSN. Moreover, cCMCMSNs demonstrated a significantly enhanced distribution of RhB specifically to cardiac cells, compared to other cell types, without causing cytotoxicity. To evaluate immune escape, cCMCMSNs were exposed to activated macrophages, demonstrating that cCMCMSNs were phagocytosed to a lesser extent than MSN. This study demonstrated the synthesis of cardiac cell membranes coated on the surface of nanoparticles as nanomedicine technologies that enhance selective drug delivery to cardiac cells, potentially offering an alternate method for drug administration in cardiovascular diseases.

Hepatoma cell-derived exosomal SNORD52 mediates M2 macrophage polarization by activating the JAK2/STAT6 pathway

BACKGROUND

A recent study revealed the oncogenic role of box C/D small nucleolar RNA 52 (SNORD52) in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) by facilitating the aggressive phenotypes of hepatoma cells. However, the potential role of exosomal SNORD52 in macrophage polarization during HCC progression remains poorly understood.

METHODS

Exosomes were isolated from hepatoma cells. Western blotting and flow cytometry were performed to determine the levels of M2 macrophage polarization markers. SNORD52 expression was assessed using qRT-PCR. The levels of JAK2/STAT6 pathway-related proteins were analyzed using western blotting.

RESULTS

SNORD52 was enriched in exosomes derived from hepatoma cells and in plasma samples from patients with HCC. Hepatoma cell-derived exosomal SNORD52 was internalized by THP-1 macrophages. SNORD52 overexpression increased the levels of M2 macrophage polarization markers and JAK2/STAT6 pathway-related proteins Additionally, hepatoma cell-derived exosomal SNORD52 interacted with the JAK2/STAT6 pathway to mediate M2 macrophage polarization.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings revealed that hepatoma cell-derived exosomal SNORD52 induces M2 macrophage polarization by activating the JAK2/STAT6 pathway.

Distinct molecular properties and functions of small EV subpopulations isolated from human umbilical cord MSCs using tangential flow filtration combined with size exclusion chromatography

As functional derivatives of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) have garnered significant attention and application in regenerative medicine. However, the technical limitations for large-scale isolation of sEVs and their heterogeneous nature have added complexity to their applications. It remains unclear if the heterogeneous sEVs represent different aspects of MSCs functions. Here, we provide a method for the large-scale production of sEVs subpopulations derived from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (HucMSCs), utilizing tangential flow filtration combined with size exclusion chromatography. The resulting subpopulations, S1-sEVs and S2-sEVs, exhibited stable variations in size, membrane-marked proteins, and carrying cargos, thereby displaying distinct functions both in vitro and in animal disease models. S1-sEVs, that highly expressed CD9, HRS and GPC1, demonstrated a greater immunomodulatory impact, while S2-sEVs with enriched expression of CD63 and FLOT1/2 possessed enhanced capacities in promoting cell proliferation and angiogenesis. These discrepancies are attributed to the specific proteins and miRNAs they contain. Further investigation revealed that the two distinct sEVs subpopulations corresponded to different biological processes: the ESCRT pathway (S1-sEVs) and the ESCRT-independent pathway represented by lipid rafts (S2-sEVs). Therefore, we propose the potential for large-scale isolation and purification of sEVs subpopulations from HucMSCs with distinct functions. This approach may provide advantages for targeted therapeutic interventions in various MSC indications.

The role of macrophage-derived exosomes in noncancer liver diseases: From intercellular crosstalk to clinical potential

Chronic liver disease has a substantial global prevalence and mortality rate. Macrophages, pivotal cells in innate immunity, exhibit remarkable heterogeneity and plasticity and play a considerable role in maintaining organ homeostasis, modulating inflammatory responses, and influencing disease progression in the liver. Exosomes, which can serve as conduits for intercellular communication, biomarkers, and therapeutic targets for a spectrum of diseases, have recently garnered increasing attention recently. Given that the liver is the organ with the highest macrophage content, a thorough understanding of the influence of macrophage-derived exosomes (MDEs) on noncancer liver disease pathogenesis and their potential therapeutic applications is paramount. Interactions among MDEs, hepatocytes, hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), and other nonparenchymal cells constitute a complex network regulates liver immune homeostasis. In this review, we summarize the latest progress in the current understanding of MDE heterogeneity and cellular crosstalk in noncancer liver diseases, as well as their potential clinical applications. Additionally, challenges and future directions are underscored.

Two roads diverged in a cell: insights from differential exosome regulation in polarized cells

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles involved in intercellular signaling, carrying various cargo from microRNAs to metabolites and proteins. They are released by practically all cells and are highly heterogenous due to their origin and content. Several groups of exosomes are known to be involved in various pathological conditions including autoimmune, neurodegenerative, and infectious diseases as well as cancer, and therefore a substantial understanding of their biogenesis and release is crucial. Polarized cells display an array of specific functions originated from differentiated membrane trafficking systems and could lead to hints in untangling the complex process of exosomes. Indeed, recent advances have successfully revealed specific regulation pathways for releasing different subsets of exosomes from different sides of polarized epithelial cells, underscoring the importance of polarized cells in the field. Here we review current evidence on exosome biogenesis and release, especially in polarized cells, highlight the challenges that need to be combatted, and discuss potential applications related to exosomes of polarized-cell origin.

Hsa_circ_0001359 in Serum Exosomes: A Promising Marker to Predict Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia in Premature Infants

Objective

This prospective study is to explore the role of specific circRNAs in predicting the development of bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD).

Methods

From July 1, 2021 to December 1, 2021, peripheral blood samples were collected from 62 premature infants with gestational age (GA) ≤32 weeks on the 7th, 14th, and 28th day after birth. Then, on the 28th day, the included infants were divided into the BPD group and the non-BPD group according to the definition of BPD. Serum exosomal circRNAs from peripheral blood were identified, sequenced, and compared between the BPD and non-BPD groups at different time points. Specific differentially expressed circRNAs were further verified from another 42 enrolled premature infants (GA ≤32 weeks). The classical lung biological markers in serum were also measured simultaneously.

Results

Hsa_circ_0001359 in serum exosomes showed continuous differential expression between the BPD group and the non-BPD group on the 7th, 14th, and 28th day. Compared with that, classical lung biological markers like IL-6, IL-33, KL-6, and ET-1 did not exhibit continuous differences. Moreover, the expression of hsa_circ_0001359 on day 7 had a higher predictive value in predicting BPD (area under curve:0.853, 95% CI:0.738-0.968; adjusted odds ratio:6.033, 95% CI:2.373-13.326). The calibration curve further showed the mean absolute error = 0.033, mean squared error = 0.00231, and quantile of absolute error = 0.058.

Conclusion

Hsa_circ_0001359 in serum exosomes is a promising marker for predicting BPD in preterm infants with gestational age ≤32 weeks.

Recent progress of exosomal lncRNA/circRNA-miRNA-mRNA axis in lung cancer: implication for clinical application

Lung cancer is the leading cause of death among malignant tumors in the world. High lung cancer mortality rate is due to most of patients diagnosed at advanced stage. The Liquid biopsy of lung cancer have received recent interest for early diagnosis. One of the components of liquid biopsy is the exosome. The exosome cargos non-coding-RNAs, especially long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), circular RNAs (circRNAs), and microRNAs (miRNAs). The lung cancer derived exosomal non-coding RNAs play the pivotal roles of lung cancer in carcinogenesis, diagnosis, therapy, drug resistance and prognosis of lung cancer. Given ceRNA (competitive endogenous RNA) mechanism, lncRNA or circRNA can act as ceRNA to compete to bind miRNAs and alter the expression of the targeted mRNA, contributing to the development and progression of lung cancer. The current research progress of the roles of the exosomal non-coding-RNAs and the interplay of ceRNAs and miRNAs in mediated lung cancer is illustrated in this article. Hence, we presented an experimentally validated lung cancer derived exosomal non-coding RNAs-regulated target gene axis from already existed evidence in lung cancer. Then LncRNA/circRNA-miRNA-mRNA axis may be a potential target for lung cancer treatment and has great potential in the diagnosis and prognosis of lung cancer.

Outer Membrane Vesicles Released from Garlic Exosome-like Nanoparticles (GaELNs) Train Gut Bacteria that Reverses Type 2 Diabetes via the Gut-Brain Axis

Gut microbiota function has numerous effects on humans and the diet humans consume has emerged as a pivotal determinant of gut microbiota function. Here, a new concept that gut microbiota can be trained by diet-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs) to release healthy outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) is introduced. Specifically, OMVs released from garlic ELN (GaELNs) trained human gut Akkermansia muciniphila (A. muciniphila) can reverse high-fat diet-induced type 2 diabetes (T2DM) in mice. Oral administration of OMVs released from GaELNs trained A. muciniphila can traffick to the brain where they are taken up by microglial cells, resulting in inhibition of high-fat diet-induced brain inflammation. GaELNs treatment increases the levels of OMV Amuc-1100, P9, and phosphatidylcholines. Increasing the levels of Amuc-1100 and P9 leads to increasing the GLP-1 plasma level. Increasing the levels of phosphatidylcholines is required for inhibition of cGas and STING-mediated inflammation and GLP-1R crosstalk with the insulin pathway that leads to increasing expression of Insulin Receptor Substrate (IRS1 and IRS2) on OMV targeted cells. These findings reveal a molecular mechanism whereby OMVs from plant nanoparticle-trained gut bacteria regulate genes expressed in the brain, and have implications for the treatment of brain dysfunction caused by a metabolic syndrome.

Application of exosomes in tumor immunity: recent progresses

Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles secreted by cells, ranging in size from 30 to 150 nm. They contain proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and other bioactive molecules, which play a crucial role in intercellular communication and material transfer. In tumor immunity, exosomes present various functions while the following two are of great importance: regulating the immune response and serving as delivery carriers. This review starts with the introduction of the formation, compositions, functions, isolation, characterization, and applications of exosomes, and subsequently discusses the current status of exosomes in tumor immunotherapy, and the recent applications of exosome-based tumor immunity regulation and antitumor drug delivery. Finally, current challenge and future prospects are proposed and hope to demonstrate inspiration for targeted readers in the field.