Temporal and spatial expression of tight junction genes during zebrafish pronephros development

Genetic mechanisms of multiciliated cell development: from fate choice to differentiation in zebrafish and other models

Multiciliated cells (MCCS) form bundles of cilia and their activities are essential for the proper development and physiology of many organ systems. Not surprisingly, defects in MCCs have profound consequences and are associated with numerous disease states. Here, we discuss the current understanding of MCC formation, with a special focus on the genetic and molecular mechanisms of MCC fate choice and differentiation. Furthermore, we cast a spotlight on the use of zebrafish to study MCC ontogeny and several recent advances made in understanding MCCs using this vertebrate model to delineate mechanisms of MCC emergence in the developing kidney.

(Zebra)fishing for nephrogenesis genes

Kidney disease is a devastating condition affecting millions of people worldwide, where over 100,000 patients in the United States alone remain waiting for a lifesaving organ transplant. Concomitant with a surge in personalized medicine, single-gene mutations, and polygenic risk alleles have been brought to the forefront as core causes of a spectrum of renal disorders. With the increasing prevalence of kidney disease, it is imperative to make substantial strides in the field of kidney genetics. Nephrons, the core functional units of the kidney, are epithelial tubules that act as gatekeepers of body homeostasis by absorbing and secreting ions, water, and small molecules to filter the blood. Each nephron contains a series of proximal and distal segments with explicit metabolic functions. The embryonic zebrafish provides an ideal platform to systematically dissect the genetic cues governing kidney development. Here, we review the use of zebrafish to discover nephrogenesis genes.

Mapping of the podocin proximity-dependent proteome reveals novel components of the kidney podocyte foot process

Introduction: The unique architecture of glomerular podocytes is integral to kidney filtration. Interdigitating foot processes extend from the podocyte cell body, wrap around fenestrated capillaries, and form specialized junctional complexes termed slit diaphragms to create a molecular sieve. However, the full complement of proteins which maintain foot process integrity, and how this localized proteome changes with disease, remain to be elucidated. Methods: Proximity-dependent biotin identification (BioID) enables the identification of spatially localized proteomes. To this end, we developed a novel in vivo BioID knock-in mouse model. We utilized the slit diaphragm protein podocin (Nphs2) to create a podocin-BioID fusion. Podocin-BioID localizes to the slit diaphragm, and biotin injection leads to podocyte-specific protein biotinylation. We isolated the biotinylated proteins and performed mass spectrometry to identify proximal interactors. Results and Discussion: Gene ontology analysis of 54 proteins specifically enriched in our podocin-BioID sample revealed 'cell junctions,' 'actin binding,' and 'cytoskeleton organization' as top terms. Known foot process components were identified, and we further uncovered two novel proteins: the tricellular junctional protein Ildr2 and the CDC42 and N-WASP interactor Fnbp1l. We confirmed that Ildr2 and Fnbp1l are expressed by podocytes and partially colocalize with podocin. Finally, we investigated how this proteome changes with age and uncovered a significant increase in Ildr2. This was confirmed by immunofluorescence on human kidney samples and suggests altered junctional composition may preserve podocyte integrity. Together, these assays have led to new insights into podocyte biology and support the efficacy of utilizing BioID in vivo to interrogate spatially localized proteomes in health, aging, and disease.

Principles of Zebrafish Nephron Segment Development

Nephrons are the functional units which comprise the kidney. Each nephron contains a number of physiologically unique populations of specialized epithelial cells that are organized into discrete domains known as segments. The principles of nephron segment development have been the subject of many studies in recent years. Understanding the mechanisms of nephrogenesis has enormous potential to expand our knowledge about the basis of congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT), and to contribute to ongoing regenerative medicine efforts aimed at identifying renal repair mechanisms and generating replacement kidney tissue. The study of the zebrafish embryonic kidney, or pronephros, provides many opportunities to identify the genes and signaling pathways that control nephron segment development. Here, we describe recent advances of nephron segment patterning and differentiation in the zebrafish, with a focus on distal segment formation.

Modeling Podocyte Ontogeny and Podocytopathies with the Zebrafish

Podocytes are exquisitely fashioned kidney cells that serve an essential role in the process of blood filtration. Congenital malformation or damage to podocytes has dire consequences and initiates a cascade of pathological changes leading to renal disease states known as podocytopathies. In addition, animal models have been integral to discovering the molecular pathways that direct the development of podocytes. In this review, we explore how researchers have used the zebrafish to illuminate new insights about the processes of podocyte ontogeny, model podocytopathies, and create opportunities to discover future therapies.

Estrogen Signaling Influences Nephron Segmentation of the Zebrafish Embryonic Kidney

Despite significant advances in understanding nephron segment patterning, many questions remain about the underlying genes and signaling pathways that orchestrate renal progenitor cell fate choices and regulate differentiation. In an effort to identify elusive regulators of nephron segmentation, our lab conducted a high-throughput drug screen using a bioactive chemical library and developing zebrafish, which are a conserved vertebrate model and particularly conducive to large-scale screening approaches. 17β-estradiol (E2), which is the dominant form of estrogen in vertebrates, was a particularly interesting hit from this screen. E2 has been extensively studied in the context of gonad development, but roles for E2 in nephron development were unknown. Here, we report that exogenous estrogen treatments affect distal tubule composition, namely, causing an increase in the distal early segment and a decrease in the neighboring distal late. These changes were noted early in development but were not due to changes in cell dynamics. Interestingly, exposure to the xenoestrogens ethinylestradiol and genistein yielded the same changes in distal segments. Further, upon treatment with an estrogen receptor 2 (Esr2) antagonist, PHTPP, we observed the opposite phenotypes. Similarly, genetic deficiency of the Esr2 analog, esr2b, revealed phenotypes consistent with that of PHTPP treatment. Inhibition of E2 signaling also resulted in decreased expression of essential distal transcription factors, irx3b and its target irx1a. These data suggest that estrogenic compounds are essential for distal segment fate during nephrogenesis in the zebrafish pronephros and expand our fundamental understanding of hormone function during kidney organogenesis.

Visualizing multiciliated cells in the zebrafish

Ciliated cells serve vital functions in the body ranging from mechano- and chemo-sensing to fluid propulsion. Specialized cells with bundles dozens to hundreds of motile cilia known as multiciliated cells (MCCs) are essential as well, where they direct fluid movement in locations such as the respiratory, central nervous and reproductive systems. Intriguingly, the appearance of MCCs has been noted in the kidney in several disease conditions, but knowledge about their contributions to the pathobiology of these states has remained a mystery. As the mechanisms contributing to ciliopathic diseases are not yet fully understood, animal models serve as valuable tools for studying cilia development and how alterations in ciliated cell function impacts disease progression. Like other vertebrates, the zebrafish, Danio rerio, has numerous ciliated tissues. Among these, the embryonic kidney (or pronephros) is comprised of both monociliated cells and MCCs and therefore provides a setting to investigate both ciliated cell fate choice and ciliogenesis. Considering the zebrafish nephron resembles the segmentation and function of human nephrons, the zebrafish provide a tractable model for studying conserved ciliogenesis pathways in vivo. In this chapter, we provide an overview of ciliated cells with a special focus on MCCs, and present a suite of methods that can be used to visualize ciliated cells and their features in the developing zebrafish. Further, these methods enable precise quantification of ciliated cell number and various cilia-related characteristics.

Advances in Understanding the Genetic Mechanisms of Zebrafish Renal Multiciliated Cell Development

Cilia are microtubule-based organelles that project from the cell surface. In humans and other vertebrates, possession of a single cilium structure enables an assortment of cellular processes ranging from mechanosensation to fluid propulsion and locomotion. Interestingly, cells can possess a single cilium or many more, where so-called multiciliated cells (MCCs) possess apical membrane complexes with several dozen or even hundreds of motile cilia that beat in a coordinated fashion. Development of MCCs is, therefore, integral to control fluid flow and/or cellular movement in various physiological processes. As such, MCC dysfunction is associated with numerous pathological states. Understanding MCC ontogeny can be used to address congenital birth defects as well as acquired disease conditions. Today, researchers used both in vitro and in vivo experimental models to address our knowledge gaps about MCC specification and differentiation. In this review, we summarize recent discoveries from our lab and others that have illuminated new insights regarding the genetic pathways that direct MCC ontogeny in the embryonic kidney using the power of the zebrafish animal model.

gldc Is Essential for Renal Progenitor Patterning during Kidney Development

The glycine cleavage system (GCS) is a complex located on the mitochondrial membrane that is responsible for regulating glycine levels and contributing one-carbon units to folate metabolism. Congenital mutations in GCS components, such as glycine decarboxylase (gldc), cause an elevation in glycine levels and the rare disease, nonketotic hyperglycinemia (NKH). NKH patients suffer from pleiotropic symptoms including seizures, lethargy, mental retardation, and early death. Therefore, it is imperative to fully elucidate the pathological effects of gldc dysfunction and glycine accumulation during development. Here, we describe a zebrafish model of gldc deficiency that recapitulates phenotypes seen in humans and mice. gldc deficient embryos displayed impaired fluid homeostasis suggesting renal abnormalities, as well as aberrant craniofacial morphology and neural development defects. Whole mount in situ hybridization (WISH) revealed that gldc transcripts were highly expressed in the embryonic kidney, as seen in mouse and human repository data, and that formation of several nephron segments was disrupted in gldc deficient embryos, including proximal and distal tubule populations. These kidney defects were caused by alterations in renal progenitor populations, revealing that the proper function of Gldc is essential for the patterning of this organ. Additionally, further analysis of the urogenital tract revealed altered collecting duct and cloaca morphology in gldc deficient embryos. Finally, to gain insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying these disruptions, we examined the effects of exogenous glycine treatment and observed analogous renal and cloacal defects. Taken together, these studies indicate for the first time that gldc function serves an essential role in regulating renal progenitor development by modulating glycine levels.

Kctd15 regulates nephron segment development by repressing Tfap2a activity

A functional vertebrate kidney relies on structural units called nephrons, which are epithelial tubules with a sequence of segments each expressing a distinct repertoire of solute transporters. The transcriptiona`l codes driving regional specification, solute transporter program activation and terminal differentiation of segment populations remain poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that the KCTD15 paralogs kctd15a and kctd15b function in concert to restrict distal early (DE)/thick ascending limb (TAL) segment lineage assignment in the developing zebrafish pronephros by repressing Tfap2a activity. During renal ontogeny, expression of these factors colocalized with tfap2a in distal tubule precursors. kctd15a/b loss primed nephron cells to adopt distal fates by driving slc12a1, kcnj1a.1 and stc1 expression. These phenotypes were the result of Tfap2a hyperactivity, where kctd15a/b-deficient embryos exhibited increased abundance of this transcription factor. Interestingly, tfap2a reciprocally promoted kctd15a and kctd15b transcription, unveiling a circuit of autoregulation operating in nephron progenitors. Concomitant kctd15b knockdown with tfap2a overexpression further expanded the DE population. Our study reveals that a transcription factor-repressor feedback module employs tight regulation of Tfap2a and Kctd15 kinetics to control nephron segment fate choice and differentiation during kidney development.

Advances in understanding vertebrate nephrogenesis

The kidney is a complex organ that performs essential functions such as blood filtration and fluid homeostasis, among others. Recent years have heralded significant advancements in our knowledge of the mechanisms that control kidney formation. Here, we provide an overview of vertebrate renal development with a focus on nephrogenesis, the process of generating the epithelialized functional units of the kidney. These steps begin with intermediate mesoderm specification and proceed all the way to the terminally differentiated nephron cell, with many detailed stages in between. The establishment of nephron architecture with proper cellular barriers is vital throughout these processes. Continuously striving to gain further insights into nephrogenesis can ultimately lead to a better understanding and potential treatments for developmental maladies such as Congenital Anomalies of the Kidney and Urinary Tract (CAKUT).

Polarized Trout Epithelial Cells Regulate Transepithelial Electrical Resistance, Gene Expression, and the Phosphoproteome in Response to Viral Infection

The burden of disease is a major challenge in aquaculture production. The fish gill characterized with a large surface area and short route to the bloodstream is a major environmental interface and a significant portal of entry for pathogens. To investigate gill responses to viral infection the salmonid gill cell line RTgill-W1 was stimulated with synthetic dsRNA and the salmonid alphavirus subtype 2 (SAV-2). Epithelial integrity in polarized cells can be measured as transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) which is defined as the electrical resistance across a cell monolayer. TEER is a widely accepted quantitative measure of cellular integrity of a cell monolayer. TEER increased immediately after stimulation with the synthetic dsRNA, polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)). In parallel, tight junction and gene expression of innate immune activation markers was modulated in response to poly(I:C). The SAV-2 virus was found to replicate at a low level in RTgill-W1 cells where TEER was disturbed at an early stage of infection, however, gene expression related to tight junction regulation was not modulated. A strong poly(I:C)-driven antiviral response was observed including increases of Rig-like receptors (RLRs) and interferon stimulating genes (ISGs) mRNAs. At the level of signal transduction, poly(I:C) stimulation was accompanied by the phosphorylation of 671 proteins, of which 390 were activated solely in response to the presence of poly(I:C). According to motif analysis, kinases in this group included MAPKs, Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase (CaMK) and cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), all reported to be activated in response to viral infection in mammals. Results also highlighted an activation of the cytoskeletal organization that could be mediated by members of the integrin family. While further work is needed to validate these results, our data indicate that salmonid gill epithelia has the ability to mount a significant response to viral infection which might be important in disease progression. In vitro cell culture can facilitate both a deeper understanding of the anti-viral response in fish and open novel therapeutic avenues for fish health management in aquaculture.

Gene expression profiling of proximal and distal renal tubules in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) acclimated to fresh water and seawater

Euryhaline teleost kidneys undergo a major functional switch from being filtratory in freshwater (FW) to being predominantly secretory in seawater (SW) conditions. The transition involves both vascular and tubular effects. There is consensus that the glomerular filtration rate is greatly reduced upon exposure to hyperosmotic conditions. Yet, regulation at the tubular level has only been examined sporadically in a few different species. This study aimed to obtain a broader understanding of transcriptional regulation in proximal versus distal tubular segments during osmotic transitions. Proximal and distal tubule cells were dissected separately by laser capture microdissection, RNA was extracted, and relative mRNA expression levels of >30 targets involved in solute and water transport were quantified by quantitative PCR in relation to segment type in fish acclimated to FW or SW. The gene categories were aquaporins, solute transporters, fxyd proteins, and tight junction proteins. aqp8bb1, aqp10b1, nhe3, sglt1, slc41a1, cnnm3, fxyd12a, cldn3b, cldn10b, cldn15a, and cldn12 were expressed at a higher level in proximal compared with distal tubules. aqp1aa, aqp1ab, nka-a1a, nka-a1b, nkcc1a, nkcc2, ncc, clc-k, slc26a6C, sglt2, fxyd2, cldn3a, and occln were expressed at a higher level in distal compared with proximal tubules. Expression of aqp1aa, aqp3a1, aqp10b1, ncc, nhe3, cftr, sglt1, slc41a1, fxyd12a, cldn3a, cldn3b, cldn3c, cldn10b, cldn10e, cldn28a, and cldn30c was higher in SW- than in FW-acclimated salmon, whereas the opposite was the case for aqp1ab, slc26a6C, and fxyd2. The data show distinct segmental distribution of transport genes and a significant regulation of tubular transcripts when kidney function is modulated during salinity transitions.

Transcriptional profiling of the zebrafish proximal tubule

The hepatocyte nuclear factor-1β (Hnf1b) transcription factor is a key regulator of kidney tubule formation and is associated with a syndrome of renal cysts and early onset diabetes. To further our understanding of Hnf1b in the developing zebrafish kidney, we performed RNA sequencing analysis of proximal tubules from hnf1b-deficient larvae. This analysis revealed an enrichment of gene transcripts encoding transporters of the solute carrier (SLC) superfamily, including multiple members of slc2 and slc5 glucose transporters. An investigation of expression of slc2a1a, slc2a2, and slc5a2 as well as a poorly studied glucose/mannose transporter encoded by slc5a9 revealed that these genes undergo dynamic spatiotemporal changes during tubule formation and maturation. A comparative analysis of zebrafish SLC genes with those expressed in mouse proximal tubules showed a substantial overlap at the level of gene families, indicating a high degree of functional conservation between zebrafish and mammalian proximal tubules. Taken together, our findings are consistent with a role for Hnf1b as a critical determinant of proximal tubule transport function by acting upstream of a large number of SLC genes and validate the zebrafish as a physiologically relevant model of the mammalian proximal tubule.

Visualizing gene expression during zebrafish pronephros development and regeneration

The vertebrate kidney is comprised of functional units known as nephrons. Defects in nephron development or activity are a common feature of kidney disease. Current medical treatments are unable to ameliorate the dire consequences of nephron deficit or injury. Although there have been tremendous advancements in our understanding of nephron ontogeny and the response to damage, many significant knowledge gaps still remain. The zebrafish embryo kidney, or pronephros, is an ideal model for many renal development and regeneration studies because it is comprised of nephrons that share conserved features with the nephron units that comprise the mammalian metanephric kidney. In this chapter, we provide an overview about the benefits of using the zebrafish pronephros to study the mechanisms underlying nephrogenesis as well as epithelial repair and regeneration. We subsequently detail methods for the spatiotemporal assessment of gene and protein expression in zebrafish embryos that can be used to extend the understanding of nephron development and disease, and thereby create new opportunities to identify therapeutic strategies for regenerative medicine.

Tfap2a is a novel gatekeeper of nephron differentiation during kidney development

Renal functional units known as nephrons undergo patterning events during development that create a segmental array of cellular compartments with discrete physiological identities. Here, from a forward genetic screen using zebrafish, we report the discovery that transcription factor AP-2 alpha (tfap2a) coordinates a gene regulatory network that activates the terminal differentiation program of distal segments in the pronephros. We found that tfap2a acts downstream of Iroquois homeobox 3b (irx3b), a distal lineage transcription factor, to operate a circuit consisting of tfap2b, irx1a and genes encoding solute transporters that dictate the specialized metabolic functions of distal nephron segments. Interestingly, this regulatory node is distinct from other checkpoints of differentiation, such as polarity establishment and ciliogenesis. Thus, our studies reveal insights into the genetic control of differentiation, where tfap2a is essential for regulating a suite of segment transporter traits at the final tier of zebrafish pronephros ontogeny. These findings have relevance for understanding renal birth defects, as well as efforts to recapitulate nephrogenesis in vivo to facilitate drug discovery and regenerative therapies.

Mechanisms of Nephrogenesis Revealed by Zebrafish Chemical Screen: Prostaglandin Signaling Modulates Nephron Progenitor Fate

Nephron development involves the creation of discrete segment populations that are specialized to fulfill unique physiological roles. As such, renal function is reliant on the proper execution of segment patterning programs. Despite the central importance of nephron segmentation, the genetic mechanisms that regulate this process are far from understood, in large part due to the experimental complexities and cost of interrogating these events in the mammalian metanephros. For this reason, forward genetics utilizing phenotypic screening in the zebrafish pronephros provides an avenue to gain novel insights about the mechanisms of nephron segmentation in the vertebrate kidney. Discoveries from zebrafish can highlight possible conserved pathways and provide a useful starting point for reverse genetic analyses with other animal models or in vitro approaches. In this review, we discuss the results of a novel chemical screen using the zebrafish to identify segmentation regulators. Through this screen, we identified for the first time that prostaglandin signaling can modulate nephron segmentation, and that it is normally requisite during development to mitigate segment fate choice in the embryonic kidney. We briefly discuss how these discoveries relate to current knowledge about nephron segmentation. Finally, we explore the possible implications of these findings for understanding renal ontogeny and disease, and how this knowledge may be useful for ongoing research initiatives that are aimed at deciphering how to build or rebuild the human kidney.

Iroquois transcription factor irx2a is required for multiciliated and transporter cell fate decisions during zebrafish pronephros development

The genetic regulation of nephron patterning during kidney organogenesis remains poorly understood. Nephron tubules in zebrafish are composed of segment populations that have unique absorptive and secretory roles, as well as multiciliated cells (MCCs) that govern fluid flow. Here, we report that the transcription factor iroquois 2a (irx2a) is requisite for zebrafish nephrogenesis. irx2a transcripts localized to the developing pronephros and maturing MCCs, and loss of function altered formation of two segment populations and reduced MCC number. Interestingly, irx2a deficient embryos had reduced expression of an essential MCC gene ets variant 5a (etv5a), and were rescued by etv5a overexpression, supporting the conclusion that etv5a acts downstream of irx2a to control MCC ontogeny. Finally, we found that retinoic acid (RA) signaling affects the irx2a expression domain in renal progenitors, positioning irx2a downstream of RA. In sum, this work reveals new roles for irx2a during nephrogenesis, identifying irx2a as a crucial connection between RA signaling, segmentation, and the control of etv5a mediated MCC formation. Further investigation of the genetic players involved in these events will enhance our understanding of the molecular pathways that govern renal development, which can be used help create therapeutics to treat congenital and acquired kidney diseases.

Prostaglandin signaling regulates renal multiciliated cell specification and maturation

Multiciliated cells (MCCs) have core roles in organ formation and function, where they control fluid flow and particle displacement. MCCs direct fluid movement in the brain and spinal cord, clearance of respiratory mucus, and ovum transport from the ovary to the uterus. Deficiencies in MCC functionality lead to hydrocephalus, chronic respiratory infections, and infertility. Prostaglandins are lipids that are used to coordinate cellular functions. Here, we discovered that prostaglandin signaling is required for MCC development in the embryonic zebrafish kidney. Understanding renal MCC genesis can lend insights into the puzzling origins of MCCs in several chronic kidney diseases, where it is unclear whether MCCs are a cause or phenotypic outcome of the condition.

Multiciliated cells (MCCs) are specialized epithelia with apical bundles of motile cilia that direct fluid flow. MCC dysfunction is associated with human diseases of the respiratory, reproductive, and central nervous systems. Further, the appearance of renal MCCs has been cataloged in several kidney conditions, where their function is unknown. Despite their pivotal health importance, many aspects of MCC development remain poorly understood. Here, we utilized a chemical screen to identify molecules that affect MCC ontogeny in the zebrafish embryo kidney, and found prostaglandin signaling is essential both for renal MCC progenitor formation and terminal differentiation. Moreover, we show that prostaglandin activity is required downstream of the transcription factor ets variant 5a (etv5a) during MCC fate choice, where modulating prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) levels rescued MCC number. The discovery that prostaglandin signaling mediates renal MCC development has broad implications for other tissues, and could provide insight into a multitude of pathological states.

Homeogene emx1 is required for nephron distal segment development in zebrafish

Vertebrate kidneys contain nephron functional units where specialized epithelial cell types are organized into segments with discrete physiological roles. Many gaps remain in our understanding of how segment regions develop. Here, we report that the transcription factor empty spiracles homeobox gene 1 (emx1) is a novel nephron segment regulator during embryonic kidney development in zebrafish. emx1 loss of function altered the domains of distal segments without changes in cell turnover or traits like size and morphology, indicating that emx1 directs distal segment fates during nephrogenesis. In exploring how emx1 influences nephron patterning, we found that retinoic acid (RA), a morphogen that induces proximal and represses distal segments, negatively regulates emx1 expression. Next, through a series of genetic studies, we found that emx1 acts downstream of a cascade involving mecom and tbx2b, which encode essential distal segment transcription factors. Finally, we determined that emx1 regulates the expression domains of irx3b and irx1a to control distal segmentation, and sim1a to control corpuscle of Stannius formation. Taken together, our work reveals for the first time that emx1 is a key component of the pronephros segmentation network, which has implications for understanding the genetic regulatory cascades that orchestrate vertebrate nephron patterning.

ppargc1a controls nephron segmentation during zebrafish embryonic kidney ontogeny

Nephron segmentation involves a concert of genetic and molecular signals that are not fully understood. Through a chemical screen, we discovered that alteration of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) signaling disrupts nephron segmentation in the zebrafish embryonic kidney (Poureetezadi et al., 2016). Here, we show that the PPAR co-activator ppargc1a directs renal progenitor fate. ppargc1a mutants form a small distal late (DL) segment and an expanded proximal straight tubule (PST) segment. ppargc1a promotes DL fate by regulating the transcription factor tbx2b, and restricts expression of the transcription factor sim1a to inhibit PST fate. Interestingly, sim1a restricts ppargc1a expression to promote the PST, and PST development is fully restored in ppargc1a/sim1a-deficient embryos, suggesting Ppargc1a and Sim1a counterbalance each other in an antagonistic fashion to delineate the PST segment boundary during nephrogenesis. Taken together, our data reveal new roles for Ppargc1a during development, which have implications for understanding renal birth defects.

Scaling up to study brca2: the zeppelin zebrafish mutant reveals a role for brca2 in embryonic development of kidney mesoderm

Specialized renal epithelial cells known as podocytes are essential components of the filtering structures within the kidney that coordinate the process of removing waste from the bloodstream. Podocyte loss initiates many human kidney diseases as it triggers subsequent damage to the kidney, leading to progressive loss of function that culminates with end stage renal failure. Podocyte morphology, function and gene expression profiles are well conserved between zebrafish and humans, making the former a relevant model to study podocyte development and model kidney diseases. Recently, we reported that whole genome sequencing of the zeppelin (zep) zebrafish mutant, which exhibits podocyte abrogation, revealed that the causative lesion for this defect was a splicing mutation in the breast cancer 2, early onset (brca2) gene. This was a surprising and novel discovery, as previous research on brca2/BRCA2 in a number of vertebrate animal models had not implicated an explicit role for this gene in kidney mesoderm development. Interestingly, the abrogation of the podocyte lineage in zep mutants was also accompanied by the formation of a larger interrenal (IR) gland, which is analogous to the adrenal gland in mammals, and suggested a fate switch between the renal and inter renal mesodermal derivatives. Mirroring these findings, knockdown of brca2 also recapitulated the loss of podocytes and increased IR population. In addition, brca2 overexpression was sufficient to partially rescue podocytes in zep mutants, and induced ectopic podocyte formation in wild-type embryos. Interestingly, immunofluorescence studies indicated that zep mutants had elevated P-h2A.X levels, suggesting that DNA repair is dysfunctional in these animals and contributes to the zep phenotype. Moving forward, this unique zebrafish mutant provides a new model to further explore how brca2 contributes to the development of tissues including the kidney mesoderm-roles which may have implications for renal diseases as well.

The zebrafish kidney mutant zeppelin reveals that brca2/fancd1 is essential for pronephros development

The zebrafish kidney is conserved with other vertebrates, making it an excellent genetic model to study renal development. The kidney collects metabolic waste using a blood filter with specialized epithelial cells known as podocytes. Podocyte formation is poorly understood but relevant to many kidney diseases, as podocyte injury leads to progressive scarring and organ failure. zeppelin (zep) was isolated in a forward screen for kidney mutants and identified as a homozygous recessive lethal allele that causes reduced podocyte numbers, deficient filtration, and fluid imbalance. Interestingly, zep mutants had a larger interrenal gland, the teleostean counterpart of the mammalian adrenal gland, which suggested a fate switch with the related podocyte lineage since cell proliferation and cell death were unchanged within the shared progenitor field from which these two identities arise. Cloning of zep by whole genome sequencing (WGS) identified a splicing mutation in breast cancer 2, early onset (brca2)/fancd1, which was confirmed by sequencing of individual fish. Several independent brca2 morpholinos (MOs) phenocopied zep, causing edema, reduced podocyte number, and increased interrenal cell number. Complementation analysis between zep and brca2^ZM_00057434 -/- zebrafish, which have an insertional mutation, revealed that the interrenal lineage was expanded. Importantly, overexpression of brca2 rescued podocyte formation in zep mutants, providing critical evidence that the brca2 lesion encoded by zep specifically disrupts the balance of nephrogenesis. Taken together, these data suggest for the first time that brca2/fancd1 is essential for vertebrate kidney ontogeny. Thus, our findings impart novel insights into the genetic components that impact renal development, and because BRCA2/FANCD1 mutations in humans cause Fanconi anemia and several common cancers, this work has identified a new zebrafish model to further study brca2/fancd1 in disease.

Cystinosis (ctns) zebrafish mutant shows pronephric glomerular and tubular dysfunction

The human ubiquitous protein cystinosin is responsible for transporting the disulphide amino acid cystine from the lysosomal compartment into the cytosol. In humans, Pathogenic mutations of CTNS lead to defective cystinosin function, intralysosomal cystine accumulation and the development of cystinosis. Kidneys are initially affected with generalized proximal tubular dysfunction (renal Fanconi syndrome), then the disease rapidly affects glomeruli and progresses towards end stage renal failure and multiple organ dysfunction. Animal models of cystinosis are limited, with only a Ctns knockout mouse reported, showing cystine accumulation and late signs of tubular dysfunction but lacking the glomerular phenotype. We established and characterized a mutant zebrafish model with a homozygous nonsense mutation (c.706 C > T; p.Q236X) in exon 8 of ctns. Cystinotic mutant larvae showed cystine accumulation, delayed development, and signs of pronephric glomerular and tubular dysfunction mimicking the early phenotype of human cystinotic patients. Furthermore, cystinotic larvae showed a significantly increased rate of apoptosis that could be ameliorated with cysteamine, the human cystine depleting therapy. Our data demonstrate that, ctns gene is essential for zebrafish pronephric podocyte and proximal tubular function and that the ctns-mutant can be used for studying the disease pathogenic mechanisms and for testing novel therapies for cystinosis.

Pronephric tubule formation in zebrafish: morphogenesis and migration

The nephron is the functional subunit of the vertebrate kidney and plays important osmoregulatory and excretory roles during embryonic development and in adulthood. Despite its central role in kidney function, surprisingly little is known about the molecular and cellular processes that control nephrogenesis. The zebrafish pronephric kidney, comprising two nephrons, provides a visually accessible and genetically tractable model system for a better understanding of nephron formation. Using this system, various developmental processes, including the commitment of mesoderm to a kidney fate, renal tubule proliferation, and migration, can be studied during nephrogenesis. Here, we discuss some of these processes in zebrafish with a focus on the pathways that influence renal tubule cell morphogenesis.

The tbx2a/b transcription factors direct pronephros segmentation and corpuscle of Stannius formation in zebrafish

The simplified and genetically conserved zebrafish pronephros is an excellent model to examine the cryptic processes of cell fate decisions during the development of nephron segments as well as the origins of associated endocrine cells that comprise the corpuscles of Stannius (CS). Using whole mount in situ hybridization, we found that transcripts of the zebrafish genes t-box 2a (tbx2a) and t-box 2b (tbx2b), which belong to the T-box family of transcription factors, were expressed in the caudal intermediate mesoderm progenitors that give rise to the distal pronephros and CS. Deficiency of tbx2a, tbx2b or both tbx2a/b reduced the size of the distal late (DL) segment, which was accompanied by a proximal convoluted segment (PCT) expansion. Further, tbx2a/b deficiency led to significantly larger CS clusters. These phenotypes were also observed in embryos with the from beyond (fby)c144 mutation, which encodes a premature stop codon in the tbx2b T-box sequence. Conversely, overexpression of tbx2a and tbx2b in wild-type embryos expanded the DL segment where cells were comingled with the adjacent DE, and also decreased CS cell number, but notably did not alter PCT development-providing independent evidence that tbx2a and tbx2b are each necessary and sufficient to promote DL fate and suppress CS genesis. Epistasis studies indicated that tbx2a acts upstream of tbx2b to regulate the DL and CS fates, and likely has other targets as well. Retinoic acid (RA) addition and inhibition studies revealed that tbx2a and tbx2b are negatively regulated by RA signaling. Interestingly, the CS cell expansion that typifies tbx2a/b deficiency also occurred when blocking Notch signaling with the chemical DAPT (N-[N-(3,5-difluorophenacetyl)-L-alanyl]-S-phenylglycine t-butyl ester). Ectopic activation of Notch in Tg(hsp70::Gal4; UAS::NICD)(NICD) embryos led to a reduced CS post heat-shock induction. To further examine the link between the tbx2a/b genes and Notch during CS formation, DAPT treatment was used to block Notch activity in tbx2a/b deficient embryos, and tbx2a/b knockdown was performed in NICD transgenic embryos. Both manipulations caused similar CS expansions, indicating that Notch functions upstream of the tbx2a/b genes to suppress CS ontogeny. Taken together, these data reveal for the first time that tbx2a/b mitigate pronephros segmentation downstream of RA, and that interplay between Notch signaling and tbx2a/b regulate CS formation, thus providing several novel insights into the genetic regulatory networks that influence these lineages.

Ion transport in the zebrafish kidney from a human disease angle: possibilities, considerations, and future perspectives

Unique experimental advantages, such as its embryonic/larval transparency, high-throughput nature, and ease of genetic modification, underpin the rapid emergence of the zebrafish ( Danio rerio) as a preeminent model in biomedical research. Particularly in the field of nephrology, the zebrafish provides a promising model for studying the physiological implications of human solute transport processes along consecutive nephron segments. However, although the zebrafish might be considered a valuable model for numerous renal ion transport diseases and functional studies of many channels and transporters, not all human renal electrolyte transport mechanisms and human diseases can be modeled in the zebrafish. With this review, we explore the ontogeny of zebrafish renal ion transport, its nephron structure and function, and thereby demonstrate the clinical translational value of this model. By critical assessment of genomic and amino acid conservation of human proteins involved in renal ion handling (channels, transporters, and claudins), kidney and nephron segment conservation, and renal electrolyte transport physiology in the zebrafish, we provide researchers and nephrologists with an indication of the possibilities and considerations of the zebrafish as a model for human renal ion transport. Combined with advanced techniques envisioned for the future, implementation of the zebrafish might expand beyond unraveling pathophysiological mechanisms that underlie distinct genetic or environmentally, i.e., pharmacological and lifestyle, induced renal transport deficits. Specifically, the ease of drug administration and the exploitation of improved genetic approaches might argue for the adoption of the zebrafish as a model for preclinical personalized medicine for distinct renal diseases and renal electrolyte transport proteins.

Prostaglandin signaling regulates nephron segment patterning of renal progenitors during zebrafish kidney development

Kidney formation involves patterning events that induce renal progenitors to form nephrons with an intricate composition of multiple segments. Here, we performed a chemical genetic screen using zebrafish and discovered that prostaglandins, lipid mediators involved in many physiological functions, influenced pronephros segmentation. Modulating levels of prostaglandin E2 (PGE₂) or PGB₂ restricted distal segment formation and expanded a proximal segment lineage. Perturbation of prostaglandin synthesis by manipulating Cox1 or Cox2 activity altered distal segment formation and was rescued by exogenous PGE₂. Disruption of the PGE₂ receptors Ptger2a and Ptger4a similarly affected the distal segments. Further, changes in Cox activity or PGE₂ levels affected expression of the transcription factors irx3b and sim1a that mitigate pronephros segment patterning. These findings show for the first time that PGE₂ is a regulator of nephron formation in the zebrafish embryonic kidney, thus revealing that prostaglandin signaling may have implications for renal birth defects and other diseases.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.17551.001

Claudin 8 Contributes to Malignant Proliferation in Human Osteosarcoma U2OS Cells

Human osteosarcoma (OS) represents one of the most common primary sarcomas often originating in the metaphyses of long bones. However, its underlying molecular pathogenesis is still only vaguely understood. Several tight junction proteins were shown to be associated with and involved in tumorigenesis. This study is aimed to evaluate the role of Claudin 8 (CLDN8) in human OS. Lentivirus-based short hairpin RNA targeting CLDN8 specifically depleted its endogenous expression in U2OS and SW1353 OS cells, with a reduction by 97.7% and 89.3%, respectively, in contrast to control. Depletion of CLDN8 led to a significant diminution in cell viability and proliferation. To test the mechanism by which CLDN8 modulates cell proliferation, the flow cytometry assay and apoptosis assay were performed and confirmed that G1-S transition was blocked and a strong proapoptotic effect was induced in U2OS cells by CLDN8 knockdown. These data demonstrate that CLDN8 plays an essential role in OS proliferation in vitro, which will provide a new opportunity for discovering and identifying novel effective treatment strategies.

Antennas of organ morphogenesis: the roles of cilia in vertebrate kidney development

Cilia arose early during eukaryotic evolution, and their structural components are highly conserved from the simplest protists to complex metazoan species. In recent years, the role of cilia in the ontogeny of vertebrate organs has received increasing attention due to a staggering correlation between human disease and dysfunctional cilia. In particular, the presence of cilia in both the developing and mature kidney has become a deep area of research due to ciliopathies common to the kidney, such as polycystic kidney disease (PKD). Interestingly, mutations in genes encoding proteins that localize to the cilia cause similar cystic phenotypes in kidneys of various vertebrates, suggesting an essential role for cilia in kidney organogenesis and homeostasis as well. Importantly, the genes so far identified in kidney disease have conserved functions across species, whose kidneys include both primary and motile cilia. Here, we aim to provide a comprehensive description of cilia and their role in kidney development, as well as highlight the usefulness of the zebrafish embryonic kidney as a model to further understand the function of cilia in kidney health.

Nephrotoxin Microinjection in Zebrafish to Model Acute Kidney Injury

The kidneys are susceptible to harm from exposure to chemicals they filter from the bloodstream. This can lead to organ injury associated with a rapid decline in renal function and development of the clinical syndrome known as acute kidney injury (AKI). Pharmacological agents used to treat medical circumstances ranging from bacterial infection to cancer, when administered individually or in combination with other drugs, can initiate AKI. Zebrafish are a useful animal model to study the chemical effects on renal function in vivo, as they form an embryonic kidney comprised of nephron functional units that are conserved with higher vertebrates, including humans. Further, zebrafish can be utilized to perform genetic and chemical screens, which provide opportunities to elucidate the cellular and molecular facets of AKI and develop therapeutic strategies such as the identification of nephroprotective molecules. Here, we demonstrate how microinjection into the zebrafish embryo can be utilized as a paradigm for nephrotoxin studies.

Insights into kidney stem cell development and regeneration using zebrafish

Kidney disease is an escalating global health problem, for which the formulation of therapeutic approaches using stem cells has received increasing research attention. The complexity of kidney anatomy and function, which includes the diversity of renal cell types, poses formidable challenges in the identification of methods to generate replacement structures. Recent work using the zebrafish has revealed their high capacity to regenerate the integral working units of the kidney, known as nephrons, following acute injury. Here, we discuss these findings and explore the ways that zebrafish can be further utilized to gain a deeper molecular appreciation of renal stem cell biology, which may uncover important clues for regenerative medicine.

Epithelial cell fate in the nephron tubule is mediated by the ETS transcription factors etv5a and etv4 during zebrafish kidney development

Kidney development requires the differentiation and organization of discrete nephron epithelial lineages, yet the genetic and molecular pathways involved in these events remain poorly understood. The embryonic zebrafish kidney, or pronephros, provides a simple and useful model to study nephrogenesis. The pronephros is primarily comprised of two types of epithelial cells: transportive and multiciliated cells (MCCs). Transportive cells occupy distinct tubule segments and are characterized by the expression of various solute transporters, while MCCs function in fluid propulsion and are dispersed in a "salt-and-pepper" fashion within the tubule. Epithelial cell identity is reliant on interplay between the Notch signaling pathway and retinoic acid (RA) signaling, where RA promotes MCC fate by inhibiting Notch activity in renal progenitors, while Notch acts downstream to trigger transportive cell formation and block adoption of an MCC identity. Previous research has shown that the transcription factor ets variant 5a (etv5a), and its closely related ETS family members, are required for ciliogenesis in other zebrafish tissues. Here, we mapped etv5a expression to renal progenitors that occupy domains where MCCs later emerge. Thus, we hypothesized that etv5a is required for normal development of MCCs in the nephron. etv5a loss of function caused a decline of MCC number as indicated by the reduced frequency of cells that expressed the MCC-specific markers outer dense fiber of sperm tails 3b (odf3b) and centrin 4 (cetn4), where rescue experiments partially restored MCC incidence. Interestingly, deficiency of ets variant 4 (etv4), a related gene that is broadly expressed in the posterior mesoderm during somitogenesis stages, also led to reduced MCC numbers, which were further reduced by dual etv5a/4 deficiency, suggesting that both of these ETS factors are essential for MCC formation and that they also might have redundant activities. In epistatic studies, exogenous RA treatment expanded the etv5a domain within the renal progenitor field and RA inhibition blocked etv5a in this populace, indicating that etv5a acts downstream of RA. Additionally, treatment with exogenous RA partially rescued the reduced MCC phenotype after loss of etv5a. Further, abrogation of Notch with the small molecule inhibitor DAPT increased the renal progenitor etv5a expression domain as well as MCC density in etv5a deficient embryos, suggesting Notch acts upstream to inhibit etv5a. In contrast, etv4 levels in renal progenitors were unaffected by changes in RA or Notch signaling levels, suggesting a possible non-cell autonomous role during pronephros formation. Taken together, these findings have revealed new insights about the genetic mechanisms of epithelial cell development during nephrogenesis.

Nephron Patterning: Lessons from Xenopus, Zebrafish, and Mouse Studies

The nephron is the basic structural and functional unit of the vertebrate kidney. To ensure kidney functions, the nephrons possess a highly segmental organization where each segment is specialized for the secretion and reabsorption of particular solutes. During embryogenesis, nephron progenitors undergo a mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition (MET) and acquire different segment-specific cell fates along the proximo-distal axis of the nephron. Even if the morphological changes occurring during nephrogenesis are characterized, the regulatory networks driving nephron segmentation are still poorly understood. Interestingly, several studies have shown that the pronephric nephrons in Xenopus and zebrafish are segmented in a similar fashion as the mouse metanephric nephrons. Here we review functional and molecular aspects of nephron segmentation with a particular interest on the signaling molecules and transcription factors recently implicated in kidney development in these three different vertebrate model organisms. A complete understanding of the mechanisms underlying nephrogenesis in different model organisms will provide novel insights on the etiology of several human renal diseases.

Microbead Implantation in the Zebrafish Embryo

The zebrafish has emerged as a valuable genetic model system for the study of developmental biology and disease. Zebrafish share a high degree of genomic conservation, as well as similarities in cellular, molecular, and physiological processes, with other vertebrates including humans. During early ontogeny, zebrafish embryos are optically transparent, allowing researchers to visualize the dynamics of organogenesis using a simple stereomicroscope. Microbead implantation is a method that enables tissue manipulation through the alteration of factors in local environments. This allows researchers to assay the effects of any number of signaling molecules of interest, such as secreted peptides, at specific spatial and temporal points within the developing embryo. Here, we detail a protocol for how to manipulate and implant beads during early zebrafish development.

Recent advances in elucidating the genetic mechanisms of nephrogenesis using zebrafish

The kidney is comprised of working units known as nephrons, which are epithelial tubules that contain a series of specialized cell types organized into a precise pattern of functionally distinct segment domains. There is a limited understanding of the genetic mechanisms that establish these discrete nephron cell types during renal development. The zebrafish embryonic kidney serves as a simplified yet conserved vertebrate model to delineate how nephron segments are patterned from renal progenitors. Here, we provide a concise review of recent advances in this emerging field, and discuss how continued research using zebrafish genetics can be applied to gain insightsabout nephrogenesis.

Atlas of Cellular Dynamics during Zebrafish Adult Kidney Regeneration

The zebrafish is a useful animal model to study the signaling pathways that orchestrate kidney regeneration, as its renal nephrons are simple, yet they maintain the biological complexity inherent to that of higher vertebrate organisms including mammals. Recent studies have suggested that administration of the aminoglycoside antibiotic gentamicin in zebrafish mimics human acute kidney injury (AKI) through the induction of nephron damage, but the timing and details of critical phenotypic events associated with the regeneration process, particularly in existing nephrons, have not been characterized. Here, we mapped the temporal progression of cellular and molecular changes that occur during renal epithelial regeneration of the proximal tubule in the adult zebrafish using a platform of histological and expression analysis techniques. This work establishes the timing of renal cell death after gentamicin injury, identifies proliferative compartments within the kidney, and documents gene expression changes associated with the regenerative response of proliferating cells. These data provide an important descriptive atlas that documents the series of events that ensue after damage in the zebrafish kidney, thus availing a valuable resource for the scientific community that can facilitate the implementation of zebrafish research to delineate the mechanisms that control renal regeneration.

Zebrafish Renal Pathology: Emerging Models of Acute Kidney Injury

The renal system is vital to maintain homeostasis in the body, where the kidneys contain nephron functional units that remove metabolic waste from the bloodstream, regulate fluids, and balance electrolytes. Severe organ damage from toxins or ischemia that occurs abruptly can cause acute kidney injury (AKI) in which there is a rapid, life-threatening loss of these activities. Humans have a limited but poorly understood ability to regenerate damaged nephrons after AKI. However, researchers studying AKI in vertebrate animal models such as mammals, and more recently the zebrafish, have documented robust regeneration within the nephron blood filter and tubule following injury. Further, zebrafish kidneys contain progenitors that create new nephrons after AKI. Here, we review investigations in zebrafish which have established a series of exciting renal pathology paradigms that complement existing AKI models and can be implemented to discover insights into kidney regeneration and the roles of stem cells.

Nephron proximal tubule patterning and corpuscles of Stannius formation are regulated by the sim1a transcription factor and retinoic acid in zebrafish

The mechanisms that establish nephron segments are poorly understood. The zebrafish embryonic kidney, or pronephros, is a simplified yet conserved genetic model to study this renal development process because its nephrons contain segments akin to other vertebrates, including the proximal convoluted and straight tubules (PCT, PST). The zebrafish pronephros is also associated with the corpuscles of Stannius (CS), endocrine glands that regulate calcium and phosphate homeostasis, but whose ontogeny from renal progenitors is largely mysterious. Initial patterning of zebrafish renal progenitors in the intermediate mesoderm (IM) involves the formation of rostral and caudal domains, the former being reliant on retinoic acid (RA) signaling, and the latter being repressed by elevated RA levels. Here, using expression profiling to gain new insights into nephrogenesis, we discovered that the gene single minded family bHLH transcription factor 1a (sim1a) is dynamically expressed in the renal progenitors-first marking the caudal domain, then becoming restricted to the proximal segments, and finally exhibiting specific CS expression. In loss of function studies, sim1a knockdown expanded the PCT and abrogated both the PST and CS populations. Conversely, overexpression of sim1a modestly expanded the PST and CS, while it reduced the PCT. These results show that sim1a activity is necessary and partially sufficient to induce PST and CS fates, and suggest that sim1a may inhibit PCT fate and/or negotiate the PCT/PST boundary. Interestingly, the sim1a expression domain in renal progenitors is responsive to altered levels of RA, suggesting that RA regulates sim1a, directly or indirectly, during nephrogenesis. sim1a deficient embryos treated with exogenous RA formed nephrons that were predominantly composed of PCT segments, but lacked the enlarged PST observed in RA treated wild-types, indicating that RA is not sufficient to rescue the PST in the absence of sim1a expression. Alternately, when sim1a knockdowns were exposed to the RA inhibitor diethylaminobenzaldehyde (DEAB), the CS was abrogated rather than expanded as seen in DEAB treated wild-types, revealing that CS formation in the absence of sim1a cannot be rescued by RA biosynthesis abrogation. Taken together, these data reveal previously unappreciated roles for sim1a in zebrafish pronephric proximal tubule and CS patterning, and are consistent with the model that sim1a acts downstream of RA to mitigate the formation of these lineages. These findings provide new insights into the genetic pathways that direct nephron development, and may have implications for understanding renal birth defects and kidney reprogramming.