Relationship of insulin-like growth factor (IGF) binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) gene polymorphism with the susceptibility to development of prostate cancer and influence on serum levels of IGF-I, and IGFBP-3

The Potential of Extracellular Matrix- and Integrin Adhesion Complex-Related Molecules for Prostate Cancer Biomarker Discovery

Prostate cancer is among the top five cancer types according to incidence and mortality. One of the main obstacles in prostate cancer management is the inability to foresee its course, which ranges from slow growth throughout years that requires minimum or no intervention to highly aggressive disease that spreads quickly and resists treatment. Therefore, it is not surprising that numerous studies have attempted to find biomarkers of prostate cancer occurrence, risk stratification, therapy response, and patient outcome. However, only a few prostate cancer biomarkers are used in clinics, which shows how difficult it is to find a novel biomarker. Cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix (ECM) through integrins is among the essential processes that govern its fate. Upon activation and ligation, integrins form multi-protein intracellular structures called integrin adhesion complexes (IACs). In this review article, the focus is put on the biomarker potential of the ECM- and IAC-related molecules stemming from both body fluids and prostate cancer tissue. The processes that they are involved in, such as tumor stiffening, bone turnover, and communication via exosomes, and their biomarker potential are also reviewed.

Association of Cytokine Gene Polymorphisms with Prostate Cancer Risk from a Study in Central China

Our study intended to investigate five cytokine gene single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and their associations with prostate cancer risk. Genotypes of five cytokine gene SNPs were detected by MassARRAY for blood samples from a group of patients with prostate cancer (n = 90) and a control group (n = 140) in central China. The differences in tumor clinical stages, Gleason scores, and PSA values in patients with prostate cancer were also investigated. The frequencies of the five cytokine gene SNPs (L-1β rs16944, IL-4 rs2070874, IL-4rs2227284, IL-16 rs7175701, and IL-16 rs11556218) genotypes were not found to be significantly mutated in prostate cancer patients compared with the control group. In addition, for five cytokine gene SNPs genotypic comparisons, patients with different Gleason scores, clinical stages, and PSA values were grouped into two subgroups. There was also no statistically significant association in all these subgroups. Our study suggests that cytokine gene polymorphisms may not be a risk factor for prostate cancer in a central Chinese population. Nevertheless, more large-scale studies on the Chinese population are necessary to examine our conclusions. The discovery of cytokine gene polymorphisms related to prostate cancer could update our understanding of the etiology and improve our knowledge of the early detection, diagnosis, and treatment of prostate cancer.

An investigation on the relevance of prolactin, insulin-like growth factor-1 and 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (25-OHD3 ) in canine benign prostatic hyperplasia in a predisposed breed model

Serum concentrations of prolactin (PRL), insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and 25 hydroxyvitamin D₃ (25-OHD₃ ) were analysed to investigate their possible involvement in the pathogenesis of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). For this, dogs of the Rhodesian Ridgeback (RR) breed were used because of a verified breed disposition for the development of BPH. Labrador Retrievers (LR) served as controls. The prostate gland status was characterised by the prostate gland volume, clinical signs of BPH (haemospermia and sonographic findings) and the plasma concentration of canine prostate-specific arginine esterase (CPSE). Breed specificity in the RR was expressed by a correlation of PRL with breed (p < 0.05). Similar relationships existed in the dogs with normal CPSE (CPSEn) with respect to the IGF-1 concentrations (LR: p < 0.05). The latter were negatively correlated with prostatic volume and age (both p < 0.05). Concentrations of 25-OHD₃ were tendentially (p = 0.18) lower in the RR with increased CPSE (CPSEi) compared with the CPSEn LR and RR showing clinical signs of BPH. A negative correlation between serum 25-OHD₃ and age (p < 0.05) existed in the CPSEi RR. Proof of 25-OHD₃ in prostatic secretion proved to be a breed specific feature in the RR (p < 0.0001). For all RR dogs showing clinical signs of BPH, a close to significant (p = 0.06) positive correlation with prostate gland volume was found. The results of the present study reveal no clear hints towards the significance of PRL and IGF-1 in the pathogenesis of canine BPH. In the RR breed there were indications of a causal relationship with age-dependent changes in the vitamin D metabolism. The data suggest the possibility of preventing or treating canine BPH by administering vitamin D or substances involved in the intraprostatic vitamin D metabolism.

Relationship between growth velocity and change of levels of insulin-like growth factor-1, insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 and, IGFBP-3 promoter polymorphism during GnRH agonist treatment

PURPOSE

This study aims to investigate the effect of gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist (GnRHa) on the growth hormone (GH)-insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) axis and to evaluate whether -202 A/C IGF binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) promoter polymorphism affects growth velocity in females with central precocious puberty (CPP) during treatment.

METHODS

Data was collected from 97 females younger than 9 years, diagnosed with precocious puberty and treated with GnRHa for at least 1 year at Kangdong Sacred Heart Hospital from 2014 to 2015. Their body height, weight, change in height standard deviation score (∆SDS), serum IGF-1, serum IGFBP-3, bone age, and -202 A/C IGFBP-3 promoter polymorphism were measured before and after GnRHa treatment. The interrelationships between the variables were calculated.

RESULTS

During treatment, height SDS, IGF-1 SDS, IGFBP-3 SDS, and IGF-1/IGFBP-3 ratio significantly decreased. A significant correlation was observed between ∆IGF-1 SDS and ∆height SDS (r=0.405, P<0.001). The presence of the C allele was significantly correlated with IGF-1 SDS after treatment (P=0.049) and with IGFBP-3 SDS before and after treatment (P=0.012 and P=0.001), but not with ∆IGF-1 SDS, ∆IGFBP-3 SDS, ∆IGF-1/IGFBP-3 ratio, or ∆height SDS.

CONCLUSION

Growth velocity during GnRHa treatment is related to ∆IGF-1 SDS, indicating the apparent impact of GnRHa on the GH-IGF-1 axis. The -202 A/C IGFBP-3 promoter polymorphism does not affect the growth velocity of GnRHa in CPP girls.

p27-V109G Polymorphism Is Not Associated with the Risk of Prostate Cancer: A Case-Control Study of Han Chinese Men in Central China

Objective

We conducted an update meta-analysis aiming to verify the association between p27-V109G polymorphism and cancer risk, particular for prostate cancer (PCa). Then, we conducted a case-control study of Han Chinese in central China to verify the evidence-based results.

Methods

Relevant studies were collected from diverse databases up to March 2017. In addition, a hospital-based (H-B) case-control study enrolling 90 PCa patients and 140 healthy controls was included to verify these evidence-based findings. Genetic risk was calculated by odds ratio (OR) with its corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI). The p27-V109G polymorphism was determined by MassARRAY genotyping method.

Results

Finally, twenty-four published studies comprising 9627 cases and 12,102 controls were enrolled for the current meta-analysis. Overall analysis suggested that p27-V109G polymorphism decreased overall cancer risk in allelic contrast, heterozygote, and dominant models. When stratified analysis was conducted by ethnicity, data revealed that p27-V109G polymorphism was associated with a decreased cancer risk in Caucasians. Highlighted in the subgroup analysis by cancer type, we uncovered a significantly decreased risk of PCa in allelic contrast, dominant, homogeneous, and recessive models. However, in the validation case-control study, we failed to uncover a positive association between p27-V109G polymorphism and PCa risk. In addition, negative results were also identified when subgroup analyses were stratified by age, tumor grade, tumor stage, PSA levels, and other measurements.

Conclusion

Although evidence-based results suggest that p27-V109G polymorphism plays a protective role in overall cancer risk, particularly for PCa, our case-control study failed to validate any association between this particular polymorphism and PCa risk.

Does milk intake promote prostate cancer initiation or progression via effects on insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)? A systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

To establish whether the association between milk intake and prostate cancer operates via the insulin-like growth factor (IGF) pathway (including IGF-I, IGF-II, IGFBP-1, IGFBP-2, and IGFBP-3).

METHODS

Systematic review, collating data from all relevant studies examining associations of milk with IGF, and those examining associations of IGF with prostate cancer risk and progression. Data were extracted from experimental and observational studies conducted in either humans or animals, and analyzed using meta-analysis where possible, with summary data presented otherwise.

RESULTS

One hundred and seventy-two studies met the inclusion criteria: 31 examining the milk-IGF relationship; 132 examining the IGF-prostate cancer relationship in humans; and 10 animal studies examining the IGF-prostate cancer relationship. There was moderate evidence that circulating IGF-I and IGFBP-3 increase with milk (and dairy protein) intake (an estimated standardized effect size of 0.10 SD increase in IGF-I and 0.05 SD in IGFBP-3 per 1 SD increase in milk intake). There was moderate evidence that prostate cancer risk increased with IGF-I (Random effects meta-analysis OR per SD increase in IGF-I 1.09; 95% CI 1.03, 1.16; n = 51 studies) and decreased with IGFBP-3 (OR 0.90; 0.83, 0.98; n = 39 studies), but not with other growth factors. The IGFBP-3 -202A/C single nucleotide polymorphism was positively associated with prostate cancer (pooled OR for A/C vs. AA = 1.22; 95% CI 0.84, 1.79; OR for C/C vs. AA = 1.51; 1.03, 2.21, n = 8 studies). No strong associations were observed for IGF-II, IGFBP-1 or IGFBP-2 with either milk intake or prostate cancer risk. There was little consistency within the data extracted from the small number of animal studies. There was additional evidence to suggest that the suppression of IGF-II can reduce tumor size, and contradictory evidence with regards to the effect of IGFBP-3 suppression on tumor progression.

CONCLUSION

IGF-I is a potential mechanism underlying the observed associations between milk intake and prostate cancer risk.

Association between insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 polymorphism-202 A/C and the risk of prostate cancer: a meta-analysis

Background

Some previous studies have investigated the relationship between insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 polymorphism and prostate cancer (PCa) susceptibility; however, the findings from those studies remain inconsistent. Hence, the aim of this meta-analysis was to provide a more reliable conclusion about such associations.

Methods

A meta-analysis based on twelve studies was conducted, and 8,341 PCa cases and 7,734 controls were included in this analysis. All relevant studies published till February 1, 2016, were identified by searching the databases such as PubMed, EMBASE, and Web of Science. Data were pooled by odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) in order to assess the strength of such associations. Publication bias was evaluated using Begg’s funnel plots and Egger’s regression test.

Results

Several articles provided data only for particular genotypes; therefore, only dominant model analyses were carried out for all of these studies. Initially, the results from this analysis indicated that rs2854744 was not associated with PCa susceptibility (OR=1.12, 95% CI=0.996–1.2). However, after excluding one study due to its heterogeneity and publication bias, a significant relationship was detected between rs2854744 and PCa risk (OR=1.10, 95% CI=1.03–1.17). When stratified by genotyping method, significant results were detected only in the Sequenom method group (OR=1.13, 95% CI=1.04–1.22). Moreover, the results from a subgroup analysis that was conducted by using source of controls were significant only in the population-based control group.

Conclusion

This meta-analysis suggested that the insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 polymorphism-202 A/C was associated with PCa susceptibility.

Polymorphism in IGFBP3 gene is associated with prostate cancer risk: an updated meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 (IGFBP3) is the major protein that binds with insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and is considered to be involved in the development and progression of various cancers. We aimed to examine the association between prostate cancer (PCa) and the IGFBP3 gene-202A/C polymorphism.

METHODS

A comprehensive search within PubMed, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library was conducted to identify all case-control studies up to October 30, 2015, for a meta-analysis. Pooled odds ratios (ORs) and the 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated using the fixed or random effects model.

RESULTS

Eighteen studies including 10,538 cases and 10,078 controls were identified. Overall, the CC genotype of IGFBP3-202A/C polymorphism was associated with increased risk of PCa in homozygote comparison (CC vs AA - OR =1.16, 95% CI: 1.08-1.25) and in recessive model (CC vs AA+AC - OR =1.11, 95% CI: 1.04-1.17). In dominant model, the CC/AC genotypes also implicated an increased risk of PCa (CC+AC vs AA - OR =1.11, 95% CI: 1.05-1.19). The C allele of IGFBP3-202A/C polymorphism was the risk allele for PCa relative to the A allele (OR =1.09, 95% CI: 1.05-1.14). Further stratification analysis revealed that the association between -202A/C polymorphism and PCa risk among Caucasians, but not in other ethnicities, was statistically significant (recessive model, OR =1.10, 95% CI: 1.02-1.19). In addition, the IGFBP3-202A/C polymorphism was associated with PCa risk in both population-based and hospital-based studies in homozygote comparison, recessive model, and allele model.

CONCLUSION

Our meta-analysis indicates that the IGFBP3-202A/C polymorphism is associated with the risk of PCa, particularly in Caucasians, with the C allele being the risk allele for PCa.

Biomarkers for evaluation of prostate cancer prognosis

Prostate cancer, with a lifetime prevalence of one in six men, is the second cause of malignancy-related death and the most prevalent cancer in men in many countries. Nowadays, prostate cancer diagnosis is often based on the use of biomarkers, especially prostate-specific antigen (PSA) which can result in enhanced detection at earlier stage and decreasing in the number of metastatic patients. However, because of the low specificity of PSA, unnecessary biopsies and mistaken diagnoses frequently occur. Prostate cancer has various features so prognosis following diagnosis is greatly variable. There is a requirement for new prognostic biomarkers, particularly to differentiate between inactive and aggressive forms of disease, to improve clinical management of prostate cancer. Research continues into finding additional markers that may allow this goal to be attained. We here selected a group of candidate biomarkers including PSA, PSA velocity, percentage free PSA, TGFβ1, AMACR, chromogranin A, IL-6, IGFBPs, PSCA, biomarkers related to cell cycle regulation, apoptosis, PTEN, androgen receptor, cellular adhesion and angiogenesis, and also prognostic biomarkers with Genomic tests for discussion. This provides an outline of biomarkers that are presently of prognostic interest in prostate cancer investigation.

Genetic variants in insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 are associated with prostate cancer susceptibility in Eastern Chinese Han men

Background

Growing evidence has indicated that insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) polymorphisms are associated with altered risk of prostate cancer (PCa). However, few studies have been conducted in Chinese population to validate this association.

Materials and methods

Herein, we examined the association between genetic variants in the IGFBP-3 gene and PCa risk in the Chinese Han population based on a genome-wide association study (1,417 cases and 1,008 controls), and replicated three genetic variants loci in an independent case-control study (1,755 cases and 1,523 controls) using Sequenom platform. Logistic regression analyses were performed to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs).

Results

We found that in the discovery stage, rs9691259 (OR =0.691, 95% CI: 0.587–0.814, P<0.001) and rs6950179 (OR =1.420, 95% CI: 1.201–1.677, P<0.001) were significantly associated with PCa risk, whereas rs2854744 showed a marginal association with PCa risk. In the replication stage, the association between rs9691259 and rs6950179 and PCa risk was not replicated, whereas rs2854744 conferred a significant association with PCa risk (OR =1.399, 95% CI: 1.010–1.937, P=0.043). After combining the two stages, we found that rs9691259, rs6950179, and rs2854744 were all significantly associated with PCa risk.

Conclusion

This study suggests that IGFBP-3 genetic variants are significantly associated with PCa risk in the Chinese population.

The insulin-like growth factor (IGF) axis as an anticancer target in prostate cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common cancer and the second leading cause of cancer death in males. In recent years, several new targeting agents have been introduced for the treatment of advanced stages of the disease. However, development of resistance limits the efficacy of new drugs and there is a further need to develop additional novel treatment approaches. One of the most investigated targets in cancer research is the insulin-like growth factor (IGF) axis, whose receptors are overexpressed in several cancer entities including PCa. In preclinical studies in PCa, targeting of the IGF axis receptors showed promising anti-tumor effects. Currently available data on clinical studies do not meet the expectations for this new treatment approach. In this review we provide a summary of preclinical and clinical studies on the IGF axis in PCa including treatment with monoclonal antibodies and tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Moreover, we summarize preliminary results from ongoing studies and discuss limitations and side effects of the substances used. We also address the role of the IGF axis in the biomarkers setting including IGF-binding proteins and genetic variants.

Impact of the IGFBP3 A-202C polymorphism on susceptibility and clinicopathologic features of breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3 (IGFBP3) plays an important role in cellular proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and mammary carcinogenesis. Genetic variations in IGFBP3 have been identified to influence the circulating IGFBP3 level. The present study determined the impact of an important promoter polymorphism (A-202C, rs2854744) on susceptibility and progression of breast cancer in a Chinese population.

METHODS

We genotyped the IGFBP3 A-202C polymorphism in a case-control study involving 465 breast cancer patients and 799 age-matched, cancer-free controls using the TaqMan method. Logistic regression was used to assess the genetic association between the occurrence and progression of breast cancer.

RESULTS

Compared with the wild genotype (-202AA), we found a statistically significant increased risk of breast cancer associated with the variant genotypes (CC vs. AA: OR=2.00, 95% CI=1.25-3.21; AC+CC vs. AA: OR=1.34, 95% CI=1.06-1.70). In the stratified analysis, the increased risk was more apparent among the subgroups of older subjects (OR=1.70, 95% CI=1.20-2.42). Furthermore, we found that patients carrying variant genotypes (AC+CC) had a significantly greater prevalence of large tumor size (OR=1.72, 95% CI=1.13-2.64; P=0.021).

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that the functional IGFBP3 A-202C polymorphism may influence the susceptibility and progression of breast cancer in the Chinese population.

Investigation of insulin resistance gene polymorphisms in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer

We aimed to investigate insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1), insulin receptor substrate-2 (IRS-2), insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) genotypes, which are thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of many solid tumors and have thus far not been studied in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC). The study consisted of 93 patients diagnosed with DTC (79 females, 14 males) and 111 healthy control subjects (63 females, 48 males). The anthropometric measurements, lipid profiles, thyroid function tests and homeostatic model assessment (HOMA) as an indicator of insulin resistance (IR) of all patients were recorded. In addition IRS-1, IRS-2 and IGFBP-3 gene polymorphisms were determined by using polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium was tested for each gene polymorphisms, and genetic effects were evaluated by the Chi Square test and multiple logistic regression. Homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), body mass index, waist circumference and serum total cholesterol levels were significantly higher in patients with DTC than in the control group. There was no difference between the two groups with respect to IRS-1, IRS-2 and IGFBP-3 gene polymorphisms. In addition, these gene polymorphisms were found to have no effect on lymph node metastases or tumor staging. While, obesity and increased HOMA-IR may be risk factors in DTC development, we suggest that IRS-1, IRS-2 and IGFBP-3 gene polymorphisms do not play an important role in pathogenesis of DTC.

Systematic review and meta-analysis of candidate gene association studies of lower urinary tract symptoms in men

Context

Although family studies have shown that male lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) are highly heritable, no systematic review exists of genetic polymorphisms tested for association with LUTS.

Objective

To systematically review and meta-analyze studies assessing candidate polymorphisms/genes tested for an association with LUTS, and to assess the strength, consistency, and potential for bias among pooled associations.

Evidence acquisition

A systematic search of the PubMed and HuGE databases as well as abstracts of major urologic meetings was performed through to January 2013. Case-control studies reporting genetic associations in men with LUTS were included. Reviewers independently and in duplicate screened titles, abstracts, and full texts to determine eligibility, abstracted data, and assessed the credibility of pooled associations according to the interim Venice criteria. Authors were contacted for clarifications if needed. Meta-analyses were performed for variants assessed in more than two studies.

Evidence synthesis

We identified 74 eligible studies containing data on 70 different genes. A total of 35 meta-analyses were performed with statistical significance in five (ACE, ELAC2, GSTM1, TERT, and VDR). The heterogeneity was high in three of these meta-analyses. The rs731236 variant of the vitamin D receptor had a protective effect for LUTS (odds ratio: 0.64; 95% confidence interval, 0.49–0.83) with moderate heterogeneity (I² = 27.2%). No evidence for publication bias was identified. Limitations include wide-ranging phenotype definitions for LUTS and limited power in most meta-analyses to detect smaller effect sizes.

Conclusions

Few putative genetic risk variants have been reliably replicated across populations. We found consistent evidence of a reduced risk of LUTS associated with the common rs731236 variant of the vitamin D receptor gene in our meta-analyses.

Patient summary

Combining the results from all previous studies of genetic variants that may cause urinary symptoms in men, we found significant variants in five genes. Only one, a variant of the vitamin D receptor, was consistently protective across different populations.

Insulin resistance and cancer: the role of insulin and IGFs

Insulin, IGF1, and IGF2 are the most studied insulin-like peptides (ILPs). These are evolutionary conserved factors well known as key regulators of energy metabolism and growth, with crucial roles in insulin resistance-related metabolic disorders such as obesity, diseases like type 2 diabetes mellitus, as well as associated immune deregulations. A growing body of evidence suggests that insulin and IGF1 receptors mediate their effects on regulating cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, glucose transport, and energy metabolism by signaling downstream through insulin receptor substrate molecules and thus play a pivotal role in cell fate determination. Despite the emerging evidence from epidemiological studies on the possible relationship between insulin resistance and cancer, our understanding on the cellular and molecular mechanisms that might account for this relationship remains incompletely understood. The involvement of IGFs in carcinogenesis is attributed to their role in linking high energy intake, increased cell proliferation, and suppression of apoptosis to cancer risks, which has been proposed as the key mechanism bridging insulin resistance and cancer. The present review summarizes and discusses evidence highlighting recent advances in our understanding on the role of ILPs as the link between insulin resistance and cancer and between immune deregulation and cancer in obesity, as well as those areas where there remains a paucity of data. It is anticipated that issues discussed in this paper will also recover new therapeutic targets that can assist in diagnostic screening and novel approaches to controlling tumor development.

The influence of promoter -202 A/C polymorphism (rs2854744) of the IGFBP-3 gene on erectile dysfunction risk and serum levels of IGF-I and IGFBP-3

PURPOSE

We studied whether the IGFBP-3 gene polymorphism rs2854744 is associated with erectile dysfunction.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We investigated the association of this polymorphism with erectile dysfunction in 176 cases and 352 controls. We genotyped rs2854744 using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism. Circulating concentrations of IGF-I and IGFBP-3 were also measured.

RESULTS

Allelic frequencies were 0.474 (A allele) and 0.526 (C allele) in men with erectile dysfunction, and 0.457 (A allele) and 0.543 (C allele) in normal controls (adjusted OR 1.74, 95% CI 0.82-2.43, p = 0.08). The frequency of the IGFBP-3 A-202C polymorphism genotype was 0.273 (CC), 0.506 (AC) and 0.221 (AA) in the case group, and 0.296 (CC), 0.494 (AC) and 0.210 (AA) in the control group (chi-square test p = 0.08). Neither the IGFBP-3 A-202C polymorphism nor serum IGF-I and IGFBP-3 levels were significantly associated with the risk of erectile dysfunction. Carriers of the AA genotype had the highest age adjusted serum IGFBP-3. This demonstrated a stepwise decrease in the presence of 1 or 2 copies of the C allele (mean ± SD 4,541 ± 796.2, 3,552 ± 642.4 and 3,314 ± 669.3 ng/ml, respectively). There was a positive correlation between serum IGFBP-3 and serum IGF-I concentrations (Spearman correlation coefficient r = 0.34, p for trend = 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The IGFBP-3 gene A-202C polymorphism does not modulate the risk of erectile dysfunction.

Oncogenic activation in prostate cancer progression and metastasis: Molecular insights and future challenges

Prostate cancer is a leading cause of death among men in the United States, and currently early diagnosis and appropriate treatment remain key approaches for patient care. Molecularly prostate cancer cells carry multiple perturbations that generate malignant phenotype capable of uncontrolled growth, survival, and invasion-metastasis to other organs. These alterations are acquired both by genetic and epigenetic changes in tumor cells resulting in the activation of growth factor receptors, signaling proteins, kinases, transcription factors and coregulators, and multiple proteases required for the progression of the disease. Recent advances provide novel insights into the molecular functions of these oncogenic activators, implicating potential therapeutic targeting opportunities for the treatment of prostate cancer.