The Time Knowledge Questionnaire for children

Can disorders of subjective time inform the differential diagnosis of psychiatric disorders? A transdiagnostic taxonomy of time

AIM

Time is a core aspect of psychopathology with potential for clinical use and early intervention. Temporal experience, perception, judgement and processing are distorted in various psychiatric disorders such as mood (depression and mania), anxiety, autistic, impulse-control, dissociative and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders. Can these disorders of time be used as early diagnostic or predictive markers? To answer this question, we develop a Transdiagnostic Taxonomy of (disordered) Time (TTT) that maps on to the symptomatological, phenomenal, perceptual and functional descriptions of each underlying disorder in a 2 × 2 × 2 state space. Temporal distortions may precede functional decline, and so assist efforts at early detection and intervention in at-risk groups.

METHOD

Firstly, this article integrates a psychological model of how time is processed with a subjective or phenomenological model of how time is experienced or perceived. Secondly, the integrated combined model of time is then used to heuristically map major psychiatric disorders on to the basic elements of temporal flow and integration.

RESULTS

The TTT systematically describes the basic temporal nature of eight diagnostic categories of psychiatric illness. It differentiates between diagnoses primarily associated with distorted "macro-level" phenomenal temporal experiences (i.e. anxiety, dissociation/PTSD, depression, and mania) from those primarily related to distorted 'micro-level' temporal processing (i.e. psychotic, impulse-control, autistic and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders).

CONCLUSIONS

The TTT allows differential diagnostic classification of various psychiatric disorders in terms of a possible underlying time disorder, making it useful for future diagnostic and predictive purposes using novel techniques of temporal processing, time perception, passage of time, and time perspective.

Psychometric properties of the Children's Time Awareness Questionnaire (CTAQ): A study on the validity of a Dutch 20-item questionnaire measuring time awareness in children

This study investigates the validity of Children's Time Awareness Questionnaire (CTAQ), a 20-item task for assessing children's time awareness. The CTAQ was administered to a group of typically developing children (n = 107) and children with any developmental problems reported by parents (non-typically developing children, n = 28), aged 4-8 years old. We found some support for a one-factor structure (EFA), yet the explained variance is relatively low (21%). Our proposed structure of two additional subscales, i.e., "time words" and "time estimation," was not supported by (confirmatory and exploratory) factor analyses. In contrast, exploratory factor analyses (EFA) indicated a six-factor structure, which needs further investigation. We found low, yet non-significant correlations between CTAQ scales and caregiver reports on children's time awareness, planning and impulsivity, and no significant correlations between CTAQ scales and scores on cognitive performance tasks. As expected, we found that older children have higher CTAQ scores than younger children. Non typically developing children had lower scores on CTAQ scales, compared to typically developing children. The CTAQ has sufficient internal consistency. The CTAQ has potential to measure time awareness, future research is indicated to further develop the CTAQ and enhance clinical applicability.

Detecting Time Concept Competence in Children with Autism Spectrum and Attention Disorders

The importance of time concept in human existence is "ancient history" celebrated in the biblical book Ecclesiastes. Indeed, our time-sensitive mechanisms are literally carved into our biology and neurology on a molecular level, gifting us with neural clocks. However, time in human consciousness is not the time indicated by physical clocks: time is a subjective reality in our psychological makeup due to the nature of the temporal neural mechanisms and unique properties of physical time. Nonetheless, subjective time requires anchoring to physical time which permeates our language, endeavors, and entire existence, a process hinging on time-related skills such as estimates and measures of passage and duration of time. Moreover, accurate time reading, a critical adaptive life-skill, is imperative for effective function in all societal activities. Because it embodies the complexity of the time construct, it is central to instruction of time concept in primary education. It is often measured in children by clock drawings, a cognitive integrative skill with errors pointing to neuroanatomical differences impacting the integrity of executive function. Time competence in children with atypical neurobiological development and high prevalence, as in autism spectrum disorders (ASD), and attention disorders (ADHD), is often compromised, calling for investigation of its function. This thematic review article aims to: 1) discuss the complexity of time concept and its underlying bio-neurological mechanisms, 2) elucidate difficulties children with ASD and those with ADHD exhibit in temporal development, and 3) demonstrate the use of a set of clinical tools in uncovering temporal competence and ecological executive function in two children with ASD, and a child with ADHD, using a clock drawing task and error analyses; children's time knowledge questionnaire; a behavior rating parent questionnaire examining ecological executive function, and parent open-ended questions related to their children's time difficulties. A discussion, directions, and a take-home message round out the article.

Feasibility of an intervention to facilitate time and everyday functioning in preschoolers

BACKGROUND

Children in need of special support (INS) often display delays in time-processing ability (TPA) affecting everyday functioning. Typically developing (TD) children are not yet mature to use the information of a clock.

AIM

To investigate the feasibility of an intervention program, MyTime, to facilitate TPA and everyday functioning in pre-school children, including the subjective experiences of pre-school staff and the children.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The intervention sample consisted of 20 children: 4 INS and 16 TD. Intervention was given daily in 8 weeks with MyTime in the pre-school environment. Data collection procedures were evaluated and children were assessed for TPA pre- and post intervention. Everyday functioning were assessed by teachers, parents and children. Experiences of the intervention were assessed by a group interview with teachers and a Talking Mats© evaluation with children.

RESULTS

MyTime worked well in pre-school and indicated an increase in the children's TPA and everyday functioning. The program was perceived simple to use by teachers and children highlighted the importance to understand the duration of time.

CONCLUSION

The program MyTime was found to be feasible in the pre-school environment. Significance: The assessment and program design can be used to investigate intervention effectiveness in a randomised study.

Time knowledge impairments in children with ADHD

BACKGROUND

A large number of studies have shown time perception impairment and reaction time (RT) variability in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and have discussed the causes of such difficulties. However, very few studies have investigated time knowledge (i.e., the correct representation and use of time units) in children with ADHD.

METHODS

We evaluated time knowledge in 33 children with ADHD, aged 8-12 years, who had consulted a reference center for learning disabilities in Paris, matched for age and gender with 33 typically developing (TD) children. We used a simple questionnaire-based survey and neuropsychological tests for cognitive and attentional skills.

RESULTS

The acquisition of time knowledge was delayed in children with ADHD compared with TD children (P<0.01). At the end of primary school, children with ADHD obtained time knowledge scores that were close to those of TD children at the beginning of primary school. In children with ADHD, time knowledge was significantly related to the working memory index (P<0.05), but not to ADHD presentation (with or without hyperactivity).

CONCLUSION

This study shows time knowledge impairment in children with ADHD, and paves the way for new screening tests and rehabilitation focused on time knowledge and time-related skills, in order to improve patient care and autonomy.

The influence of children's mathematical competence on performance in mental number line, time knowledge and time perception

A growing body of research suggests that space, time and number are represented within a common system. Other studies have shown this relationship is related to the mathematical competency. Here we examined the influence of the mathematical capacities of 8-12 years old children, grouped into high (n = 63) and low (n = 58) on performance in mental number line, time knowledge and time perception. The results revealed that mathematical competency influences mental number line and time knowledge, but with regard to time perception the effects were only observed in time production task. In addition, the results of correlation analysis revealed interaction between time knowledge, time production (but not reproduction) and mental number line. Finally, the findings are discussed within the framework of the recent theories regarding representation of space, time and number.