Genetics in Congenital Heart Diseases: Unraveling the Link Between Cardiac Morphogenesis, Heart Muscle Disease, and Electrical Disorders

Clinical Genetic and Genomic Testing in Congenital Heart Disease and Cardiomyopathy

Congenital heart disease (CHD) and cardiomyopathies are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. These conditions are often caused by genetic factors, and recent research has shown that genetic and genomic testing can provide valuable information for patient care. By identifying genetic causes, healthcare providers can screen for other related health conditions, offer early interventions, estimate prognosis, select appropriate treatments, and assess the risk for family members. Genetic and genomic testing is now the standard of care in patients with CHD and cardiomyopathy. However, rapid advances in technology and greater availability of testing options have led to changes in recommendations for the most appropriate testing method. Several recent studies have investigated the utility of genetic testing in this changing landscape. This review summarizes the literature surrounding the clinical utility of genetic evaluation in patients with CHD and cardiomyopathy.

Occupational exposure to potentially toxic elements alters gene expression profiles in formal and informal Brazilian workers

Chemical elements, such as toxic metals, have previously demonstrated their ability to alter gene expression in humans and other species. In this study, microarray analysis was used to compare the gene expression profiles of different occupational exposure populations: a) informal workers who perform soldering of jewelry inside their houses (n = 22) in São Paulo (SP) State; and b) formal workers from a steel company (n = 10) in Rio de Janeiro (RJ) state, Brazil. Control participants were recruited from the same neighborhoods without occupational chemical exposure (n = 19 in SP and n = 8 in RJ). A total of 68 blood samples were collected and RNA was extracted and hybridized using an Agilent microarray platform. Data pre-processing, statistical and pathway analysis were performed using GeneSpring software. Different expression was detected by fold-change analysis resulting in 16 up- and 33 down-regulated genes in informal workers compared to the control group. Pathway analysis revealed genes enriched in MAPK, Toll-like receptor, and NF-kappa B signaling pathways, involved in inflammatory and immune responses. In formal workers, 20 up- and 50 down-regulated genes were found related to antimicrobial peptides, defensins, neutrophil degranulation, Fc-gamma receptor-dependent phagocytosis, and pathways associated with atherosclerosis development, which is one of the main factors involved in the progression of cardiovascular diseases. The gene IFI27 was the only one commonly differentially expressed between informal and formal workers and is known to be associated with various types of cancer. In conclusion, differences in gene expression related to occupational exposure are mainly associated with inflammation and immune response. Previous research has identified a link between inflammation and immune responses and the development of chronic diseases, suggesting that prolonged occupational exposures to potentially toxic elements in Brazilian metal workers could lead to negative health outcomes. Further analysis should be carried out to investigate its direct effects and to validate causal associations.

Maternal body fluid lncRNAs serve as biomarkers to diagnose ventricular septal defect: from amniotic fluid to plasma

Background: Maternal body fluids contain abundant cell-free fetal RNAs which have the potential to serve as indicators of fetal development and pathophysiological conditions. In this context, this study aimed to explore the potential diagnostic value of maternal circulating long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in ventricular septal defect (VSD). Methods: The potential of lncRNAs as non-invasive prenatal biomarkers for VSD was evaluated using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. The biological processes and regulatory network of these lncRNAs were elucidated through bioinformatics analysis. Results: Three lncRNAs (LINC00598, LINC01551, and GATA3-AS1) were found to be consistent in both maternal plasma and amniotic fluid. These lncRNAs exhibited strong diagnostic performance for VSD, with AUC values of 0.852, 0.957, and 0.864, respectively. The bioinformatics analysis revealed the involvement of these lncRNAs in heart morphogenesis, actin cytoskeleton organization, cell cycle regulation, and protein binding through a competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network at the post-transcriptional level. Conclusion: The cell-free lncRNAs present in the amniotic fluid have the potential to be released into the maternal circulation, making them promising candidates for investigating epigenetic regulation in VSD.

Biallelic truncating variants in children with titinopathy represent a recognizable condition with distinctive muscular and cardiac characteristics: a report on five patients

Background

Monoallelic and biallelic TTN truncating variants (TTNtv) may be responsible for a wide spectrum of musculoskeletal and cardiac disorders with different age at onset. Although the prevalence of heterozygous TTNtv is relatively high in the general population, cardiac phenotyping (mainly cardiomyopathies, CMPs) in biallelic titinopathy has rarely been described in children.

Methods

We reviewed the medical records of pediatric patients with biallelic TTNtv and cardiac involvement. Clinical exome sequencing excluded pathogenic/likely pathogenic variants in major CMP genes.

Results

Five pediatric patients (four male) with biallelic TTNtv were included. Major arthrogryposis multiplex was observed in four patients; no patient showed intellectual disability. At a cardiac level, congenital heart defects (atrial and ventricular septal defects, n = 3) and left ventricular non-compaction (n = 1) were reported. All patients had dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) diagnosed at birth in one patient and at the age of 10, 13, 14, and 17 years in the other four patients. Heart rhythm monitoring showed tachyarrhythmias (premature ventricular contractions, n = 2; non-sustained ventricular tachycardia, n = 2) and nocturnal first-degree atrio-ventricular block (n = 2). Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging was performed in all patients and revealed a peculiar late gadolinium enhancement distribution in three patients. HyperCKemia was present in two patients and end-stage heart failure in four. End-organ damage requiring heart transplantation (HT) was indicated in two patients, who were operated on successfully.

Conclusion

Biallelic TTNtv should be considered when evaluating children with severe and early-onset DCM, particularly if skeletal and muscular abnormalities are present, e.g., arthrogryposis multiplex and congenital progressive myopathy. End-stage heart failure is common and may require HT.

Fetal Heart Rate < 3rd Percentile for Gestational Age Can Be a Marker of Inherited Arrhythmia Syndromes

BACKGROUND

Repeated fetal heart rates (FHR) < 3rd percentile for gestational age (GA) with 1:1 atrioventricular conduction (sinus bradycardia) can be a marker for long QT syndrome. We hypothesized that other inherited arrhythmia syndromes might present with fetal sinus bradycardia.

METHODS

We reviewed pregnancies referred with sinus bradycardia to the Colorado Fetal Care Center between 2013 and 2023. FHR/GA data, family history, medication exposure, normalized isovolumic contraction times (n-IVRT), postnatal genetic testing, and ECGs at 4-6 weeks after birth were reviewed.

RESULTS

Twenty-nine bradycardic subjects were evaluated by fetal echocardiography. Five were lost to follow-up, one refused genetic testing, and one had negative genetic testing for any inherited arrhythmia. Six had non-genetic causes of fetal bradycardia with normal prenatal n-IVRT and postnatal QTc. Thirteen carried pathogenic variants in RYR2 (n = 2), HCN4 (n = 2), KCNQ1 (6), and other LQTS genes (n = 4). The postnatal QTc was <470 ms in subjects with RYR2, HCN4, and two of those with KCNQ1 mutations, and >470 ms in subjects with CALM 2, KCNH2, SCN5A, and four of those with KCNQ1 mutations. LQTS and RYR2 mutations were associated with prolonged n-IVRT, but HCN4 was not. Two fetuses died in utero with variants of uncertain significance (CACNA1 and KCNE1). Cascade testing uncovered six affected but undiagnosed parents and confirmed familial inheritance in five.

CONCLUSION

In addition to heralding LQTS, repeated FHR < 3rd percentile for GA is a risk factor for other inherited arrhythmia syndromes. These findings suggest that genetic testing should be offered to infants with a history of FHR < 3rd percentile for GA even if the postnatal ECG demonstrates a normal QTc interval.

The multifaceted biology of lncR-Meg3 in cardio-cerebrovascular diseases

Cardio-cerebrovascular disease, related to high mortality and morbidity worldwide, is a type of cardiovascular or cerebrovascular dysfunction involved in various processes. Therefore, it is imperative to conduct additional research into the pathogenesis and new therapeutic targets of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disorders. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have multiple functions and are involved in nearly all cellular biological processes, including translation, transcription, signal transduction, and cell cycle control. LncR-Meg3 is one of them and is becoming increasingly popular. By binding proteins or directly or competitively binding miRNAs, LncR-Meg3 is involved in apoptosis, inflammation, oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and other processes. Recent research has shown that LncR-Meg3 is associated with acute myocardial infarction and can be used to diagnose this condition. This article examines the current state of knowledge regarding the expression and regulatory function of LncR-Meg3 in relation to cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. The abnormal expression of LncR-Meg3 can influence neuronal cell death, inflammation, apoptosis, smooth muscle cell proliferation, etc., thereby aggravating or promoting the disease. In addition, we review the bioactive components that target lncR-Meg3 and propose some potential delivery vectors. A comprehensive and in-depth analysis of LncR-Meg3’s role in cardiovascular disease suggests that targeting LncR-Meg3 may be an alternative therapy in the near future, providing new options for slowing the progression of cardiovascular disease.

Cardiovascular Involvement in Pediatric FLNC Variants: A Case Series of Fourteen Patients

Filamin C is a protein specifically expressed in myocytes and cardiomyocytes and is involved in several biological functions, including sarcomere contractile activity, signaling, cellular adhesion, and repair. FLNC variants are associated with different disorders ranging from striated muscle (myofibrillar distal or proximal) myopathy to cardiomyopathies (CMPs) (restrictive, hypertrophic, and dilated), or both. The outcome depends on functional consequences of the detected variants, which result either in FLNC haploinsufficiency or in an aberrant protein, the latter affecting sarcomere structure leading to protein aggregates. Cardiac manifestations of filaminopathies are most often described as adult onset CMPs and limited reports are available in children or on other cardiac spectrums (congenital heart defects-CHDs, or arrhythmias). Here we report on 13 variants in 14 children (2.8%) out of 500 pediatric patients with early-onset different cardiac features ranging from CMP to arrhythmias and CHDs. In one patient, we identified a deletion encompassing FLNC detected by microarray, which was overlooked by next generation sequencing. We established a potential genotype-phenotype correlation of the p.Ala1186Val variant in severe and early-onset restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM) associated with a limb-girdle defect (two new patients in addition to the five reported in the literature). Moreover, in three patients (21%), we identified a relatively frequent finding of long QT syndrome (LQTS) associated with RCM (n = 2) and a hypertrabeculated left ventricle (n = 1). RCM and LQTS in children might represent a specific red flag for FLNC variants. Further studies are warranted in pediatric cohorts to delineate potential expanding phenotypes related to FLNC.

Regulation of cardiac ion channels by transcription factors: Looking for new opportunities of druggable targets for the treatment of arrhythmias

Cardiac electrical activity is governed by different ion channels that generate action potentials. Acquired or inherited abnormalities in the expression and/or function of ion channels usually result in electrophysiological changes that can cause cardiac arrhythmias. Transcription factors (TFs) control gene transcription by binding to specific DNA sequences adjacent to target genes. Linkage analysis, candidate-gene screening within families, and genome-wide association studies have linked rare and common genetic variants in the genes encoding TFs with genetically-determined cardiac arrhythmias. Besides its critical role in cardiac development, recent data demonstrated that they control cardiac electrical activity through the direct regulation of the expression and function of cardiac ion channels in adult hearts. This narrative review summarizes some studies showing functional data on regulation of the main human atrial and ventricular Na⁺, Ca²⁺, and K⁺ channels by cardiac TFs such as Pitx2c, Tbx20, Tbx5, Zfhx3, among others. The results have improved our understanding of the mechanisms regulating cardiac electrical activity and may open new avenues for therapeutic interventions in cardiac acquired or inherited arrhythmias through the identification of TFs as potential drug targets. Even though TFs have for a long time been considered as 'undruggable' targets, advances in structural biology have led to the identification of unique pockets in TFs amenable to be targeted with small-molecule drugs or peptides that are emerging as novel therapeutic drugs.

Cardiomyopathies in Children and Systemic Disorders When Is It Useful to Look beyond the Heart?

Cardiomyopathy (CMP) is a rare disease in the pediatric population, with a high risk of morbidity and mortality. The genetic etiology of CMPs in children is extremely heterogenous. These two factors play a major role in the difficulties of establishing standard diagnostic and therapeutic protocols. Isolated CMP in children is a frequent finding, mainly caused by sarcomeric gene variants with a detection rate that can reach up to 50% of analyzed cohorts. Complex multisystemic forms of pediatric CMP are even more heterogenous. Few studies in literature take into consideration this topic as the main core since it represents a rarity (systemic CMP) within a rarity (pediatric population CMP). Identifying etiology in this cohort is essential for understanding prognosis, risk stratification, eligibility to heart transplantation and/or mechanical-assisted procedures, preventing multiorgan complications, and relatives' recurrence risk calculation. The previous points represent a cornerstone in patients' empowerment and personalized medical care approach. The aim of this work is to propose a new approach for an algorithm in the setting of the diagnostic framework of systemic pediatric CMP. On the other hand, during the literature review, we noticed a relatively common etiologic pattern in some forms of complex/multisystem CMP. In other words, certain syndromes such as Danon, Vici, Alström, Barth, and Myhre syndrome share a common pathway of directly or indirectly defective "autophagy" process, which appears to be a possible initiating/triggering factor for CMPs. This conjoint aspect could be important for possible prognostic/therapeutic implications in this category of patients. However, multicentric studies detailed functional and experimental models are needed prior to deriving conclusions.