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Zhao Y, Yang M, Feng J, Wang X, Liu Y. Advances in immunotherapy for biliary tract cancers. Chin Med J (Engl) 2024; 137:524-532. [PMID: 37646139 DOI: 10.1097/cm9.0000000000002759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT Biliary tract cancers (BTC), a heterogeneous disease with poor prognosis, including gallbladder cancer (GBC), intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC), and extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ECC). Although surgery is currently the primary regimen to treat BTC, most BTC patients are diagnosed at an advanced stage and miss the opportunity of surgical eradication. As a result, non-surgical therapy serves as the main intervention for advanced BTC. In recent years, immunotherapy has emerged as one of the most promising therapies in a number of solid cancers, and it includes immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) monotherapy or combined therapy, tumor vaccines, oncolytic virus immunotherapy, adoptive cell therapy (ACT), and cytokine therapy. However, these therapies have been practiced in limited clinical settings in patients with BTC. In this review, we focus on the discussion of latest advances of immunotherapy in BTC and update the progress of multiple current clinical trials with different immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhao Zhao
- Department of Biliary-Pancreatic Surgery, Renji Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200127, China
- Shanghai Cancer Institute, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai 200127, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Biliary Tract Disease, Shanghai 200082, China
| | - Mao Yang
- Department of Biliary-Pancreatic Surgery, Renji Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200127, China
- Shanghai Cancer Institute, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai 200127, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Biliary Tract Disease, Shanghai 200082, China
| | - Jiayi Feng
- Department of Biliary-Pancreatic Surgery, Renji Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200127, China
- Shanghai Cancer Institute, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai 200127, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Biliary Tract Disease, Shanghai 200082, China
| | - Xu'an Wang
- Department of Biliary-Pancreatic Surgery, Renji Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200127, China
- Shanghai Cancer Institute, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai 200127, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Biliary Tract Disease, Shanghai 200082, China
| | - Yingbin Liu
- Department of Biliary-Pancreatic Surgery, Renji Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200127, China
- Shanghai Cancer Institute, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai 200127, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Biliary Tract Disease, Shanghai 200082, China
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He Z, Chen M, Luo Z. Identification of immune-related genes and integrated analysis of immune-cell infiltration in melanoma. Aging (Albany NY) 2024; 16:911-927. [PMID: 38217549 PMCID: PMC10817386 DOI: 10.18632/aging.205427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study was conducted to screen out immune-related genes in connection with the prognosis of melanoma, construct a prognosis model and explore the relevant mechanisms. METHODS AND MATERIALS 1973 genes associated with immune system were derived from the Immport database, and RNA-seq data of melanoma and information of patients were searched from the Xena database. Cox univariate analysis, Lasso analysis and Cox multivariate analysis were used to screen out six genes to construct the model. Then the risk scores were estimated for patients based on our constructed prognosis model. Estimate was used to affirm that the model was about immune infiltration, and CIBERSORT was used to screen out immune cells associated with prognosis. TIDE was applied to predict the efficacy of immunotherapy. Finally, GSE65904 and GSE19234 were used to confirm the effectiveness of the model. RESULTS ADCYAP1R1, GPI, NTS might cause poor prognosis while IFITM1, KIR2DL4, LIF were more likely conductive to prognosis of melanoma patients and a model of prognosis was constructed on the basis of these six genes. The effectiveness of the model has been proven by the ROC curve, and the miRNAs targeting the screened genes were found out, suggesting that the immune system might impact on the prognosis of melanoma by T cell CD8+, T cell CD4+ memory and NK cells. CONCLUSIONS In this study, the screened six genes were associated with the prognosis of melanoma, which was conductive to clinical prognostic prediction and individualized treatment strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenghao He
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Zhongshan City People's Hospital, Zhongshan 528403, Guangdong, China
| | - Manli Chen
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Zhongshan City People's Hospital, Zhongshan 528403, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhijun Luo
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Zhongshan City People's Hospital, Zhongshan 528403, Guangdong, China
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Hajibabaie F, Abedpoor N, Haghjooy Javanmard S, Hasan A, Sharifi M, Rahimmanesh I, Shariati L, Makvandi P. The molecular perspective on the melanoma and genome engineering of T-cells in targeting therapy. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 237:116980. [PMID: 37648188 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.116980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2023] [Revised: 08/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
Melanoma, an aggressive malignant tumor originating from melanocytes in humans, is on the rise globally, with limited non-surgical treatment options available. Recent advances in understanding the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying immune escape, tumorigenesis, drug resistance, and cancer metastasis have paved the way for innovative therapeutic strategies. Combination therapy targeting multiple pathways simultaneously has been shown to be promising in treating melanoma, eliciting favorable responses in most melanoma patients. CAR T-cells, engineered to overcome the limitations of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-dependent tumor cell detection associated with T-cell receptors, offer an alternative approach. By genetically modifying apheresis-collected allogeneic or autologous T-cells to express chimeric antigen receptors, CAR T-cells can appreciate antigens on cell surfaces independently of major histocompatibility complex (MHC), providing a significant cancer cell detection advantage. However, identifying the most effective target antigen is the initial step, as it helps mitigate the risk of toxicity due to "on-target, off-tumor" and establishes a targeted therapeutic strategy. Furthermore, evaluating signaling pathways and critical molecules involved in melanoma pathogenesis remains insufficient. This study emphasizes the novel approaches of CAR T-cell immunoediting and presents new insights into the molecular signaling pathways associated with melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Hajibabaie
- Department of Biology, Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran; Department of Medical Biotechnology, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran.
| | - Navid Abedpoor
- Department of Sports Physiology, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran; Department of Medical Biotechnology, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran.
| | - Shaghayegh Haghjooy Javanmard
- Applied Physiology Research Center, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.
| | - Anwarul Hasan
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Qatar University, Doha, 2713, Qatar; Biomedical Research Center, Qatar University, Doha, 2713, Qatar.
| | - Mehran Sharifi
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Cancer Prevention Research Center, Seyyed Al-Shohada Hospital, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.
| | - Ilnaz Rahimmanesh
- Applied Physiology Research Center, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.
| | - Laleh Shariati
- Department of Biomaterials, Nanotechnology and Tissue Engineering, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, 8174673461, Iran; Biosensor Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.
| | - Pooyan Makvandi
- The Quzhou Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Quzhou People's Hospital, Quzhou, 324000, Zhejiang, China; School of Engineering, Institute for Bioengineering, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3JL, UK.
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Mazzio E, Barnes A, Badisa R, Council S, Soliman KFA. Plants against cancer: the immune-boosting herbal microbiome: not of the plant, but in the plant. Basic concepts, introduction, and future resource for vaccine adjuvant discovery. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1180084. [PMID: 37588095 PMCID: PMC10426289 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1180084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The presence of microorganism communities (MOCs) comprised of bacteria, fungi, archaea, algae, protozoa, viruses, and the like, are ubiquitous in all living tissue, including plant and animal. MOCs play a significant role in establishing innate and acquired immunity, thereby influencing susceptibility and resistance to disease. This understanding has fostered substantial advancements in several fields such as agriculture, food science/safety, and the development of vaccines/adjuvants, which rely on administering inactivated-attenuated MOC pathogens. Historical evidence dating back to the 1800s, including reports by Drs Busch, Coley, and Fehleisen, suggested that acute febrile infection in response to "specific microbes" could trigger spontaneous tumor remission in humans. This discovery led to the purposeful administration of the same attenuated strains, known as "Coley's toxin," marking the onset of the first microbial (pathogen) associated molecular pattern (MAMPs or PAMPs)-based tumor immunotherapy, used clinically for over four decades. Today, these same MAMPS are consumed orally by billions of consumers around the globe, through "specific" mediums (immune boosting "herbal supplements") as carriers of highly concentrated MOCs accrued in roots, barks, hulls, sea algae, and seeds. The American Herbal Products Association (AHPA) mandates microbial reduction in botanical product processing but does not necessitate the removal of dead MAMP laden microbial debris, which we ingest. Moreover, while existing research has focused on the immune-modulating role of plant phytochemicals, the actual immune-boosting properties might instead reside solely in the plant's MOC MAMP laden biomass. This assertion is logical, considering that antigenic immune-provoking epitopes, not phytochemicals, are known to stimulate immune response. This review explores a neglected area of research regarding the immune-boosting effects of the herbal microbiome - a presence which is indirectly corroborated by various peripheral fields of study and poses a fundamental question: Given that food safety focuses on the elimination of harmful pathogens and crop science acknowledges the existence of plant microbiomes, what precisely are the immune effects of ingesting MAMPs of diverse structural composition and concentration, and where are these distributed in our botanicals? We will discuss the topic of concentrated edible MAMPs as acid and thermally stable motifs found in specific herbs and how these would activate cognate pattern recognition receptors (PPRs) in the upper gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), including Peyer's patches and the lamina propria, to boost antibody titers, CD8+ and CD4+ T cells, NK activity, hematopoiesis, and facilitating M2 to M1 macrophage phenotype transition in a similar manner as vaccines. This new knowledge could pave the way for developing bioreactor-grown/heat-inactivated MOC therapies to boost human immunity against infections and improve tumor surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Mazzio
- Divison of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Public Health, Florida A & M University, Tallahassee, FL, United States
| | - Andrew Barnes
- Divison of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Public Health, Florida A & M University, Tallahassee, FL, United States
| | - Ramesh Badisa
- Divison of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Public Health, Florida A & M University, Tallahassee, FL, United States
| | - Stevie Council
- John Gnabre Science Research Institute, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Karam F. A. Soliman
- Divison of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Public Health, Florida A & M University, Tallahassee, FL, United States
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Tas L, Jedema I, Haanen JB. Novel strategies to improve efficacy of treatment with tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) for patients with solid cancers. Curr Opin Oncol 2023; 35:107-113. [PMID: 36607824 PMCID: PMC9894146 DOI: 10.1097/cco.0000000000000925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Treatment with tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) has shown remarkable clinical responses in patients with advanced solid tumors. Although the TIL production process is very robust, the original protocol stems from the early nineties and lacks effective selection for tumor-reactivity and functional activity. In this review we highlight the limitations of the current production process and give an overview of improvements that can be made to increase TIL efficacy. RECENT FINDINGS With the recent advances in single cell sequencing technologies, our understanding of the composition and phenotype of TILs in the tumor micro environment has majorly increased, which forms the basis for the development of new strategies to improve the TIL production process. Strategies involve selection for neoantigen-reactive TILs by cell sorting or selective expansion strategies. Furthermore, gene editing strategies like Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-Cas (CRISPR-Cas9) can be used to increase TIL functionality. SUMMARY Although combining all the possible improvements into a next generation TIL product might be challenging, it is highly likely that those techniques will increase the clinical value of TIL therapy in the coming years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liselotte Tas
- Division of Molecular Oncology and Immunology, Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Inge Jedema
- Division of Molecular Oncology and Immunology, Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - John B.A.G. Haanen
- Division of Molecular Oncology and Immunology, Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands
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Biri-Kovács B, Bánóczi Z, Tummalapally A, Szabó I. Peptide Vaccines in Melanoma: Chemical Approaches towards Improved Immunotherapeutic Efficacy. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15020452. [PMID: 36839774 PMCID: PMC9963291 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15020452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 01/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer of the skin is by far the most common of all cancers. Although the incidence of melanoma is relatively low among skin cancers, it can account for a high number of skin cancer deaths. Since the start of deeper insight into the mechanisms of melanoma tumorigenesis and their strong interaction with the immune system, the development of new therapeutical strategies has been continuously rising. The high number of melanoma cell mutations provides a diverse set of antigens that the immune system can recognize and use to distinguish tumor cells from normal cells. Peptide-based synthetic anti-tumor vaccines are based on tumor antigens that elicit an immune response due to antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Although targeting APCs with peptide antigens is the most important assumption for vaccine development, peptide antigens alone are poorly immunogenic. The immunogenicity of peptide antigens can be improved not only by synthetic modifications but also by the assistance of adjuvants and/or delivery systems. The current review summarizes the different chemical approaches for the development of effective peptide-based vaccines for the immunotherapeutic treatment of advanced melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beáta Biri-Kovács
- ELKH-ELTE Research Group of Peptide Chemistry, 1117 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Zoltán Bánóczi
- ELKH-ELTE Research Group of Peptide Chemistry, 1117 Budapest, Hungary
- Institute of Chemistry, Eötvös Loránd University, 1117 Budapest, Hungary
| | | | - Ildikó Szabó
- ELKH-ELTE Research Group of Peptide Chemistry, 1117 Budapest, Hungary
- Institute of Chemistry, Eötvös Loránd University, 1117 Budapest, Hungary
- MTA-TTK Lendület “Momentum” Peptide-Based Vaccines Research Group, Institute of Materials and Environmental Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, 1117 Budapest, Hungary
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +36-13722500
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Tietze JK. [Tumor-infiltrating natural killer and T cells in melanoma]. DERMATOLOGIE (HEIDELBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 73:929-936. [PMID: 36401123 DOI: 10.1007/s00105-022-05076-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Melanoma is a highly immunogenic cancer with an increased infiltration of lymphocytes (TIL). TIL are a very heterogeneous population which consists among others of CD8+ T cells, CD4+ T cells, regulatory T cells, B cells, and natural killer (NK) cells and may differ highly between melanoma patients. Distribution, concentration, phenotype, and activation status of the infiltrating lymphocytes vary greatly and impact the prognosis. Different subpopulations of CD8+ T cells, CD4+ T cells, and NK cells have been identified and have been associated with both the course of the disease and the therapeutic response to different therapies. Increased knowledge of the different functions, interactions, activation, and possibilities of actively influencing relevant subgroups may lead to novel, innovative, and promising therapeutic options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia K Tietze
- Klinik und Poliklinik für Dermatologie und Allergologie, Universitätsmedizin Rostock, Strempelstr. 13, 18057, Rostock, Deutschland.
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Rok J, Rzepka Z, Kowalska J, Banach K, Beberok A, Wrześniok D. The Anticancer Potential of Doxycycline and Minocycline-A Comparative Study on Amelanotic Melanoma Cell Lines. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23020831. [PMID: 35055021 PMCID: PMC8775630 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23020831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Revised: 01/02/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Malignant melanoma is still a serious medical problem. Relatively high mortality, a still-growing number of newly diagnosed cases, and insufficiently effective methods of therapy necessitate melanoma research. Tetracyclines are compounds with pleiotropic pharmacological properties. Previously published studies on melanotic melanoma cells ascertained that minocycline and doxycycline exerted an anti-melanoma effect. The purpose of the study was to assess the anti-melanoma potential and mechanisms of action of minocycline and doxycycline using A375 and C32 human amelanotic melanoma cell lines. The obtained results indicate that the tested drugs inhibited proliferation, decreased cell viability, and induced apoptosis in amelanotic melanoma cells. The treatment caused changes in the cell cycle profile and decreased the intracellular level of reduced thiols and mitochondrial membrane potential. The exposure of A375 and C32 cells to minocycline and doxycycline triggered the release of cytochrome c and activated initiator and effector caspases. The anti-melanoma effect of analyzed drugs appeared to be related to the up-regulation of ERK1/2 and MITF. Moreover, it was noticed that minocycline and doxycycline increased the level of LC3A/B, an autophagy marker, in A375 cells. In summary, the study showed the pleiotropic anti-cancer action of minocycline and doxycycline against amelanotic melanoma cells. Considering all results, it could be concluded that doxycycline was a more potent drug than minocycline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Rok
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-32-364-15-47
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Enhancing Therapeutic Approaches for Melanoma Patients Targeting Epigenetic Modifiers. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13246180. [PMID: 34944799 PMCID: PMC8699560 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13246180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Melanoma is the least common but deadliest type of skin cancer. Melanomagenesis is driven by a series of mutations and epigenetic alterations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes that allow melanomas to grow, evolve, and metastasize. Epigenetic alterations can also lead to immune evasion and development of resistance to therapies. Although the standard of care for melanoma patients includes surgery, targeted therapies, and immune checkpoint blockade, other therapeutic approaches like radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and immune cell-based therapies are used for patients with advanced disease or unresponsive to the conventional first-line therapies. Targeted therapies such as the use of BRAF and MEK inhibitors and immune checkpoint inhibitors such as anti-PD-1 and anti-CTLA4 only improve the survival of a small subset of patients. Thus, there is an urgent need to identify alternative standalone or combinatorial therapies. Epigenetic modifiers have gained attention as therapeutic targets as they modulate multiple cellular and immune-related processes. Due to melanoma's susceptibility to extrinsic factors and reversible nature, epigenetic drugs are investigated as a therapeutic avenue and as adjuvants for targeted therapies and immune checkpoint inhibitors, as they can sensitize and/or reverse resistance to these therapies, thus enhancing their therapeutic efficacy. This review gives an overview of the role of epigenetic changes in melanoma progression and resistance. In addition, we evaluate the latest advances in preclinical and clinical research studying combinatorial therapies and discuss the use of epigenetic drugs such as HDAC and DNMT inhibitors as potential adjuvants for melanoma patients.
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Zeng H, Liu F, Zhou H, Zeng C. Individualized Treatment Strategy for Cutaneous Melanoma: Where Are We Now and Where Are We Going? Front Oncol 2021; 11:775100. [PMID: 34804979 PMCID: PMC8599821 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2021.775100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
In the past several decades, innovative research in cancer biology and immunology has contributed to novel therapeutics, such as targeted therapy and immunotherapy, which have transformed the management of patients with melanoma. Despite the remarkable therapeutic outcomes of targeted treatments targeting MAPK signaling and immunotherapy that suppresses immune checkpoints, some individuals acquire therapeutic resistance and disease recurrence. This review summarizes the current understanding of melanoma genetic variations and discusses individualized melanoma therapy options, particularly for advanced or metastatic melanoma, as well as potential drug resistance mechanisms. A deeper understanding of individualized treatment will assist in improving clinical outcomes for patients with cutaneous melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huihua Zeng
- Department of General Medicine, Shenzhen Longhua District Central Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Fen Liu
- Department of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen Longhua District Central Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Hairong Zhou
- Department of General Medicine, Shenzhen Longhua District Central Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Changchun Zeng
- Department of Medical Laboratory, Shenzhen Longhua District Central Hospital, Guangdong Medical University, Shenzhen, China
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