Which technology to investigate visual perception in sport: Video vs. virtual reality

A meta-analysis of performance advantages on athletes in multiple object tracking tasks

This study compared the multiple object tracking (MOT) performance of athletes vs. non-athletes and expert athletes vs. novice athletes by systematically reviewing and meta-analyzing the literature. A systematic literature search was conducted using five databases for articles published until July 2024. Healthy people were included, specifically classified as athletes and non-athletes, or experts and novices. Potential sources of heterogeneity were selected using a random-effects model. Moderator analyses were also performed. A total of 23 studies were included in this review. Regarding the overall effect, athletes were significantly better at MOT tasks than non-athletes, and experts performed better than novices. Subgroup analyses showed that expert athletes had a significantly larger effect than novices, and that the type of sport significantly moderated the difference in MOT performance between the two groups. Meta-regression revealed that the number of targets and duration of tracking moderated the differences in performance between experts and novices, but did not affect the differences between athletes and non-athletes. This meta-analysis provides evidence of performance advantages for athletes compared with nonathletes, and experts compared with novices in MOT tasks. Moreover, the two effects were moderated by different factors; therefore, future studies should classify participants more specifically according to sports levels.

Animated VR and 360-degree VR to assess and train team sports decision-making: a scoping review

Introduction

In team sports, athletes' ability to make quick decisions plays a crucial role. Decision-making proficiency relies on the intricate balance of athletes' perceptual and cognitive abilities, enabling them to assess the competitive environment swiftly and select the most appropriate actions from various options. Virtual reality (VR) technology is emerging as a valuable tool for evaluating and refining athletes' decision-making skills. This study systematically examined the integration of VR technology into decision-making processes in team sports, aiming to identify more effective methods for presenting and interacting with virtual decision-making systems, thus enhancing the evaluation and refinement of athletes' decision making abilities.

Methods

Following the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, a thorough search of respected research databases, including Web of Science, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, ScienceDirect, PsycINFO, and IEEE, was conducted using carefully selected keywords.

Results

Twenty research papers meeting predefined inclusion criteria were included after careful evaluation. These papers were systematically analyzed to delineate the attributes of virtual decision-making task environments, the interactive dynamics inherent in motor decision-making tasks, and the significant findings.

Discussion

This review indicate that (1) the effectiveness of VR technology in assessing and improving athletes' decision-making skills in team sports; (2) the construction of virtual environments using the Head-Mounted Display (HMD) system, characterized by enhanced ease and efficiency; (3) the potential for future investigations to explore computer simulations to create more expansive virtual motion scenarios, thus efficiently generating substantial task scenario material, diverging from the constraints posed by 360-degree panoramic videos; and (4) the integration of motion capture technology for identifying and monitoring athletes' decision-making behaviors, which not only enhances ecological validity but also augments the transfer validity of virtual sports decision-making systems. Future research endeavors could explore integrating eye-tracking technology with virtual reality to gain insights into the intrinsic cognitive-action associations exhibited by athletes.

It's not all in your feet: Improving penalty kick performance with human-avatar interaction and machine learning

Penalty kicks are increasingly decisive in major international football competitions. Yet, over 30% of shootout kicks are missed. The outcome of the kick often relies on the ability of the penalty taker to exploit anticipatory movements of the goalkeeper to redirect the kick toward the open side of the goal. Unfortunately, this ability is difficult to train using classical methods. We used an augmented reality simulator displaying an holographic goalkeeper to test and train penalty kick performance with 13 young elite players. Machine learning algorithms were used to optimize the learning rate by maintaining an optimal level of training difficulty. Ten training sessions of 20 kicks reduced the redirection threshold by 120 ms, which constituted a 28% reduction with respect to the baseline threshold. Importantly, redirection threshold reduction was observed for all trained players, and all things being equal, it corresponded to an estimated 35% improvement of the success rate.

The Effects of a Short Virtual Reality Training Program on Dynamic Balance in Tennis Players

This study aimed to analyze the effects of a 5 min virtual reality training program (VR) on dynamic balance in tennis players. Fifty-eight college tennis players (mean age 22.9 ± 3.1 years, weight 73.9 ± 10.8 kg, height 176.6 ± 8.4 cm) were allocated to either the control group (placebo) (CG, n = 20) or the right-handed experimental group (RTG, n = 20) and left-handed experimental group (LTG, n = 18), both of which took part in the 5 min VR intervention program. Pre-tests included anthropometric measures and the Y Balance Test (YBT), and the post-test was the Y Balance Test (YBT). Three YBT trials were performed in anterior (ANT), posterolateral (PL), and posteromedial (PM) directions. After the training intervention, in the right-handed experimental group (RTG), significant differences were observed for two variables: anterior reach (right foot) (p = 0.00) and posterior medial reach (right foot) (p = 0.03). In other analyzed variables, there were no significant differences. Additionally, the effect size was small. In the left-handed experimental group (LTG), statistically significant improvements were identified in five out of six analyzed variables: anterior reach (left foot) (p = 0.00), posterior medial reach (left foot) (p = 0.00), posterior lateral reach (left foot) (p = 0.00), posterior medial reach (right foot) (p = 0.00), and posterior lateral reach (right foot) (p = 0.00). The effect size ranged between small and medium. No significant changes were observed in the control group (CG) after the training intervention. Moreover, for all variables, the time*group interaction is determined. Anterior reach (left foot), posterior medial reach (left foot), posterior medial reach (right foot), and posterior lateral reach (right foot) showed significant interactions (F = 3.04, p = 0.05; F = 3.50, p = 0.03; F = 6.08, p = 0.00; and F = 4.69, p = 0.01). The outcome of this study leads us to a further understanding that if a player were to partake in VR activity, it could show a positive effect on their dynamic balance performance.

Augmented-reality swim goggles accurately and reliably measure swim performance metrics in recreational swimmers

Background

Swimmers commonly access performance metrics such as lap splits, distance, and pacing information between work bouts while they rest. Recently, a new category of tracking devices for swimming was introduced with the FORM Smart Swim Goggles (FORM Goggles). The goggles have a built-in see-through display and are capable of tracking and displaying distance, time splits, stroke, and pace metrics in real time using machine learning and augmented reality through a heads-up display. The purpose of this study was to assess the validity and reliability of the FORM Goggles compared with video analysis for stroke type, pool length count, pool length time, stroke rate, and stroke count in recreational swimmers and triathletes.

Method

A total of 36 participants performed mixed swimming intervals in a 25-m pool across two identical 900-m swim sessions performed at comparable intensities with 1 week interval. The participants wore FORM Goggles during their swims, which detected the following five swim metrics: stroke type, pool length time, pool length count, stroke count, and stroke rate. Four video cameras were positioned on the pool edges to capture ground truth video footage, which was then manually labeled by three trained individuals. Mean (SD) differences between FORM Goggles and ground truth were calculated for the selected metrics for both sessions. The absolute mean difference and mean absolute percentage error were used to assess the differences of the FORM Goggles relative to ground truth. The test-retest reliability of the goggles was assessed using both relative and absolute reliability metrics.

Results

Compared with video analysis, the FORM Goggles identified the correct stroke type at a rate of 99.7% (N = 2,354 pool lengths, p < 0.001), pool length count accuracy of 99.8%, and mean differences (FORM Goggles-ground truth) for pool length time: -0.10 s (1.49); stroke count: -0.63 (1.82); and stroke rate: 0.19 strokes/min (3.23). The test-retest intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) values between the two test days were 0.793 for pool length time, 0.797 for stroke count, and 0.883 for stroke rate. Overall, for pool length time, the residuals were within ±1.0s for 65.3% of the total pool lengths, for stroke count within ±1 stroke for 62.6% of the total pool lengths, and for stroke rate within ±2 strokes/min for 66.40% of the total pool lengths.

Conclusion

The FORM Goggles were found valid and reliable for the tracking of pool length time, pool length count, stroke count, stroke rate, and stroke type during freestyle, backstroke, and breaststroke swimming in recreational swimmers and triathletes when compared with video analysis. This opens perspectives for receiving real-time information on performance metrics during swimming.

Do you have a good all-around view? Evaluation of a decision-making skills diagnostic tool using 360° videos and head-mounted displays in elite youth soccer

Elite youth players' decision-making skills are considered important predictors of adult performance in soccer. The presentation of 360° videos in head-mounted displays offers new potential for the diagnostic of these skills in talent development programs. This study evaluated a new diagnostic tool using soccer-specific 360° videos for assessing decision-making skills in youth academy (YA) players. The evaluation consisted of players' subjective feedback as well as the analysis of diagnostic and prognostic validity. It was hypothesized that high-level YA players achieve better diagnostic results than regional-level players, and U19 outperform U17 players. Moreover, YA players' diagnostic results should be positively associated with future adult performance level. During the 2018/19 season, N = 48 youth players participated in the diagnostic procedures (split-half reliability r = .78). Participants were shown 54 videos which terminated when the central midfielder received a teammate's pass. Participants were then asked how to best continue playing. The subjective evaluation explored YA players' experiences with the diagnostic tool via quantitative ratings (e.g., "How exciting was the task?", "How involved did you feel in the game situation?") and additional interviews. Diagnostic validity was examined in a balanced cross-sectional 2 × 2-design (performance level x age group) and prognostic validity in a 3-year prospective design. Sensitivity and case-by-case analyses completed the evaluation. The YA players provided positive quantitative ratings regarding their experienced immersion into the environment. Players' qualitative feedback indicated general acceptance of the diagnostic tool as well as it offered recommendations for improvements. Confirming the diagnostic validity, ANOVA revealed significant main effects for performance level (p < .001, η2 = .29) and age group (p < .01, η2 = .14). Contributing to the prognostic validity, the diagnostic results discriminated between YA players achieving a higher and a lower adult performance level ("League 1-4" vs. "League 5 or below") in adulthood (p < .05; d = 0.80). A ROC curve and the AUC showed that the correct assignment to the adult performance levels is possible with a 71% probability. YA players with a high decision-making accuracy had a six times higher chance of playing in "League 1-4". The results demonstrated empirical evidence for the new diagnostic tool in terms of YA players' acceptance and validity coefficients exceeding effect sizes of former studies. The technology provides opportunities to test soccer-specific situations demanding an all-around view that were not testable in former experimental settings. Further technological advancements will enable the realization of improvements recommended by the players. Nonetheless, case-by-case analyses suggest caution in using such a diagnostic as a selection tool in talent development programs.

Effectiveness of Video Modeling in Improving Technical Skills in Young Novice Basketball Players: A Quasi-Experimental Study

(1) Objective: This is a quasi-experimental study that investigated the effect of four weeks of training sessions using video modeling (VM) on individual and collective technical skills in young novice basketball players. (2) Method: 20 players were equally assigned to either a control group (CG, n = 10; 12 ± 0.7 years) or a video modeling group (VMG, n = 10; 12.5 ± 0.5 years; visualizing videos before each session) were assessed before and after the four-week training period using the Basketball Skill Test of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance for individual techniques and three vs. three small-sided games for collective aspects. (3) Results: For the passing test, VMG induced higher performance than CG (p = 0.021; d = 0.87). For offensive balls post-intervention, higher values were recorded for VMG compared to CG (p = 0.003; d = 1.81). In addition, the number of attack balls index post-intervention was higher for VMG compared to CG (p = 0.001; d = 0.28). For losing the ball, VMG induced lower values than CG after the training intervention (p < 0.001; d = -3.23). The efficiency index was higher post-training compared to pre-training for VMG (p = 0.013; d = 1.24). (4) Conclusion: The study highlighted the importance of using video modeling as an effective strategy to improve technical skills and collective performance in novice young basketball players.

Researching the application of virtual reality in medical education: one-year follow-up of a randomized trial

BACKGROUND

Compared with traditional tendon repair teaching methods, using a virtual reality (VR) simulator to teach tendon suturing can significantly improve medical students' exercise time, operation flow and operation knowledge. At present, the purpose of this study is to explore the long-term influence of VR simulator teaching on the practice performance of medical students.

METHOD

This is a one-year long-term follow-up study of a randomized controlled study. A total of 117 participants who completed the initial study were invited to participate in the follow-up study. Participants in the VR group and the control group were required to complete a questionnaire developed by the authors and the teachers in the teaching and research department and to provide their surgical internship scores and Objective Structure Clinical Examination(OSCE) graduation scores.

RESULTS

Of the 117 invitees, 108 completed the follow-up. The answers to the questions about career choice and study habits were more positive in the VR group than in the control group (p < 0.05). The total score for clinical practice in the VR group was better than that in the control group, and the difference was statistically significant (p < 0.05). In the OSCE examination, the scores for physical examination, suturing and knotting and image reading were higher in the VR group than in the control group, and the difference was statistically significant (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The results of the one-year long-term follow-up indicated that compared with medical students experiencing the traditional teaching mode, those experiencing the VR teaching mode had more determined career pursuit and active willingness to learn, better evaluations from teachers in the process of surgical clinical practice, and better scores in physical examination, suturing and knotting and image reading in the OSCE examination. In the study of nonlinear dynamics to cultivate a good learning model for medical students, the VR teaching model is expected to become an effective and stable initial sensitive element.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Chinese Clinical Trial Registry(25/05/2021, ChiCTR2100046648); http://www.chictr.org.cn/hvshowproject.aspx?id=90180 .

Biomechanical fidelity of athletic training using virtual reality head-mounted display: the case of preplanned and unplanned sidestepping

Virtual reality has recently been recognised as an effective tool for investigating visual-perceptual tasks. To develop a sport-specific virtual environment with realistic locomotion, it is crucial to examine the effect of using virtual reality devices on athletes performing intense and complex movements. Twelve collegiate football players were instructed to perform pre-planned and unplanned sidestepping in both environments with the same dimension and experimental setup in the virtual environment as in the real one. Analysis of the performance and knee biomechanical parameters showed that movements performed in the two environments were generally comparable. Consistent changes in approach velocity and knee angle/moment under unplanned conditions (compared with preplanned conditions) were also found in the virtual environment as in the real one, except for the significantly larger peak flexion angle (p < .05) observed in the virtual environment. Interestingly, half of the participants changed from producing abduction to adduction moment at the weight acceptance phase in the preplanned condition (p < .05). These findings suggested that while it is generally feasible to use virtual reality head-mounted displays for designated experiments and training, the effect of wearing virtual reality devices could be somewhat subject-specific.

Gaze Fixation and Visual Searching Behaviors during an Immersive Virtual Reality Social Skills Training Experience for Children and Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Pilot Study

Children and youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) display difficulties recognizing and interacting with behavioral expressions of emotion, a deficit that makes social interaction problematic. Social skills training is foundational to the treatment of ASD, yet this intervention is costly, time-consuming, lacks objectivity, and is difficult to deliver in real-world settings. This pilot project investigated the use of an immersive virtual reality (IVR) headset to simulate real-world social interactions for children/youth with ASD. The primary objective was to describe gaze fixation and visual search behaviors during the simulated activity. Ten participants were enrolled and completed one social-skills training session in the IVR. The results demonstrate differential patterns between participants with mild, moderate, and severe ASD in the location and duration of gaze fixation as well as the patterns of visual searching. Although the results are preliminary, these differences may shed light on phenotypes within the continuum of ASD. Additionally, there may be value in quantifying gaze and visual search behaviors as an objective metric of interventional effectiveness for social-skills training therapy.

Effects of video-based training on anticipation and decision-making in football players: A systematic review

The training of athletes' anticipation and decision-making skills has received increasing attention from researchers, who developed and implemented training programs to achieve this. Video-based training (VBT) has become a popular method in anticipation and decision-making skills training. However, little is known about the benefits of implementing VBT in soccer. This systematic review considered the results of studies on VBT aiming to develop decision-making and anticipation skills in football players, and analyzed its effects. Literature published up to March 2022 was systematically searched on the scientific electronic databases Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, SportDiscus, and Google Scholar. In total, 5,749 articles were identified. After screening the records according to the set exclusion and inclusion criteria, ten articles were considered eligible, including six longitudinal studies and four acute studies. Eight of the ten included studies (80%) showed that VBT group performance in anticipation or decision-making skills was significantly better at post-test than at pre-test, as evidenced by improvements in response accuracy (RA), response times (RT), mean distance scores (MDS) and passing decision-making performance. In six studies that included the no video-based training (NVBT) group, results showed that athletes in the VBT group performed better in anticipation or decision-making skills than in the NVBT group, as evidenced by improvements in RA and RT performance. The studies used different methods for VBT, both explicit and implicit training effectively improved participants' anticipation and decision-making skills. In addition, the implementation of the "first-person" perspective (i.e., the player's perspective) and virtual reality (VR) improved the presentation of video stimuli, effectively improving anticipation and decision-making. The findings of this review suggest that VBT is beneficial in developing anticipation and decision-making judgments in football players. However, some findings were inconsistent with previous studies due to differences in intervention duration and experimental protocols, and further studies are needed. Furthermore, future research should actively seek to design appropriate retention tests and transfer tests to truly understand the benefits of VBT for athletes.

Comparison of Performance and Movement Kinematics of Virtual Reality Practice with Real-World Practice in the Dart-Throwing Skill

Background: Researchers are pursuing the enhancement of sensorimotor skills through the application of virtual reality (VR) in the sports environment. Objectives: This study aimed to compare the performance and kinematics of VR with real-world dart-throwing. Methods: Twenty-four healthy junior high school boy students participated (aged = 13.66, SD = 0.48) in this semi-experimental study in the year of 2017. We examined mean radial and bivariate variable errors as the performance variables. The maximum flexion angle, release time angle, and angular velocity was examined as the kinematic variables. Standard dartboard, the Xbox360, the Kinect, and a high-speed camera (sampling at 240 Hz) were used to measure the performance and kinematics characteristics of upper limb motion. We used Kinovea 0.8.26 and MATLAB R2015b to analyze videos and data smoothing. One-way MANOVA was used to analyze variables. Results: The results revealed (P = 0.211) no significant differences between VR and real world (RW) training in acquisition and retention outcomes, F (4, 19) = 1.618. In addition, kinematic dependent variables (P = 0.414) had no significant difference between groups, F (6, 17) = 1.077. Conclusions: These findings achieved the same results in performance and kinematics of dart-throwing by VR intervention in the RW context. Basic similarities between VR and RW movement patterns in the same task bring motor skills improvement and transfer of learning.

Feasibility Study on Virtual Reality Based Basketball Tactic Training

In this article, a VR-based basketball training system comprising a standalone VR device and a tablet is proposed. The system is intended to improve the ability of players to understand offensive tactics and practice these tactics correctly. We compare the training effectiveness of various degrees of immersion, including a conventional basketball tactic board, a 2D monitor, and virtual reality. A multi-camera-based human tracking system was designed and built around a real-world basketball court to record and analyze the running trajectory of each player during tactical execution. The accuracy of the running path and hesitation time at each tactical step were evaluated for each participant. Furthermore, we assessed several subjective measurements, including simulator sickness, presence, and sport imagery ability, to conduct a more comprehensive exploration of the feasibility of the proposed VR framework for basketball tactics training. The results indicate that the proposed system is useful for learning complex tactics. Furthermore, high VR immersion training improves athletes' abilities with regards to strategic imagery.

What Differences Exist in Professional Ice Hockey Performance Using Virtual Reality (VR) Technology between Professional Hockey Players and Freestyle Wrestlers? (a Pilot Study)

There is little research on the study of specific characteristics that contribute to the faster adaptation of athletes during the transition from one sport to another. We used virtual reality (VR) to study the differences between professional ice hockey players and other sport professionals (freestyle wrestlers), who were novices in hockey in terms of motor responses and efficiency performance, on different levels of difficulty. In the VR environment, four levels of difficulty (four blocks) were simulated, depended on the speed of the puck and the distance to it (Bl1-60-80 km/h and 18 m; Bl2-60-100 km/h, distances 12 and 18 m; Bl3-speeds up to 170 km/h and 6, 12, and 18 m; Bl4-the pucks are presented in a series of two (in sequence with a 1 s interval)). The results of the study showed that the hockey professionals proved to have more stable movement patterns of the knee and hip joints. They also made fewer head movements as a response to stimuli during all runs (0.66 vs. 1.25, p = 0.043). Thus, working out on these parameters can contribute to the faster adaptation of wrestlers in developing professional ice hockey skills.

Artificial Intelligence in Elite Sports—A Narrative Review of Success Stories and Challenges

This paper explores the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in elite sports. We approach the topic from two perspectives. Firstly, we provide a literature based overview of AI success stories in areas other than sports. We identified multiple approaches in the area of Machine Perception, Machine Learning and Modeling, Planning and Optimization as well as Interaction and Intervention, holding a potential for improving training and competition. Secondly, we discover the present status of AI use in elite sports. Therefore, in addition to another literature review, we interviewed leading sports scientist, which are closely connected to the main national service institute for elite sports in their countries. The analysis of this literature review and the interviews show that the most activity is carried out in the methodical categories of signal and image processing. However, projects in the field of modeling & planning have become increasingly popular within the last years. Based on these two perspectives, we extract deficits, issues and opportunities and summarize them in six key challenges faced by the sports analytics community. These challenges include data collection, controllability of an AI by the practitioners and explainability of AI results.

Systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis on virtual reality and education

The objective of this study is to identify and analyze the scientific literature with a bibliometric analysis to find the main topics, authors, sources, most cited articles, and countries in the literature on virtual reality in education. Another aim is to understand the conceptual, intellectual, and social structure of the literature on the subject and identify the knowledge base of the use of VR in education and whether it is commonly used and integrated into teaching-learning processes. To do this, articles indexed in the Main Collections of the Web of Science, Scopus and Lens were analyzed for the period 2010 to 2021. The research results are presented in two parts: the first is a quantitative analysis that provides an overview of virtual reality (VR) technology used in the educational field, with tables, graphs, and maps, highlighting the main performance indicators for the production of articles and their citation. The results obtained found a total of 718 articles of which the following were analyzed 273 published articles. The second stage consisted of an inductive type of analysis that found six major groups in the cited articles, which are instruction and learning using VR, VR learning environments, use of VR in different fields of knowledge, learning processes using VR applications or games, learning processes employing simulation, and topics published during the Covid-19 pandemic. Another important aspect to mention is that VR is used in many different areas of education, but until the beginning of the pandemic the use of this so-called "disruptive process" came mainly from students, Institutions were reluctant and slow to accept and include VR in the teaching-learning processes.

Multiple Players Tracking in Virtual Reality: Influence of Soccer Specific Trajectories and Relationship With Gaze Activity

The perceptual-cognitive ability to track multiple moving objects and its contribution to team sports performance has traditionally been studied in the laboratory under non-sports specific conditions. It is thus questionable whether the measured visual tracking performance and the underlying gaze activity reflected the actual ability of team sports players to track teammates and opponents on a real field. Using a Virtual Reality-based visual tracking task, the ability of participants to track multiple moving virtual players as they would do on a soccer field was observed to pursue two objectives. (i) See the influence of different scenario types (soccer-specific trajectories versus pseudo-random trajectories) on the visual tracking performance of soccer (n = 15) compared to non-soccer players (n = 16). (ii) Observe the influence of spatial features of the simulated situations on gaze activity between soccer players and non-soccer players. (i) The linear mixed model regression revealed a significant main effect of the group but no interaction effect between group and the type of trajectories, suggesting that the visual tracking ability of soccer players did not benefit from their specific knowledge when they faced scenarios with real game trajectories. (ii) Virtual players' spatial dispersion and crowding affected the participants' gaze activity and their visual tracking performance. Furthermore, the gaze activity of soccer players differed in some aspects from the gaze activity of non-soccer players. Assumptions are formulated as to the implication of these results in the difference in visual tracking performance between soccer players and non-soccer players. Overall, using soccer-specific trajectories might not be enough to replicate the representativeness of the field conditions in the study of visual tracking performance. Multitasking constraints should be considered along with motor-cognitive dual-tasks in future research to develop the representativeness of visual exploration conditions.

The structure of the superior and inferior parietal lobes predicts inter-individual suitability for virtual reality

The global virtual reality (VR) market is significantly expanding and being challenged with an increased demand owing to COVID-19. Unfortunately, VR is not useful for everyone due to large interindividual variability existing in VR suitability. To understand the neurobiological basis of this variability, we obtained neural structural and functional data from the participants using 3T magnetic resonance imaging. The participants completed one of two tasks (sports training or cognitive task) using VR, which differed in the time scale (months/minutes) and domain (motor learning/attention task). Behavioral results showed that some participants improved their motor skills in the real world after 1-month training in the virtual space or obtained high scores in the 3D attention task (high suitability for VR), whereas others did not (low suitability for VR). Brain structure analysis revealed that the structural properties of the superior and inferior parietal lobes contain information that can predict an individual’s suitability for VR.

The Effect of Virtual Reality Technology on the Imagery Skills and Performance of Target-Based Sports Athletes

The aim of this study is the examination of the effect of virtual reality based imagery (VRBI) training programs on the shot performance and imagery skills of athletes and, and to conduct a comparison with Visual Motor Behavior Rehearsal and Video Modeling (VMBR + VM). In the research, mixed research method and sequential explanatory design were used. In the quantitative dimension of the study the semi-experimental model was used, and in the qualitative dimension the case study design was adopted. The research participants were selected from athletes who were involved in our target sports: curling (n = 14), bowling (n = 13), and archery (n = 7). All participants were randomly assigned to VMBR + VM (n = 11), VRBI (n = 12), and Control (n = 11) groups through the "Research Randomizer" program. The quantitative data of the study was: the weekly shot performance scores of the athletes and the data obtained from the "Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised." The qualitative data was obtained from the data collected from the semi-structured interview guide, which was developed by researchers and field experts. According to the results obtained from the study, there were statistically significant differences between the groups in terms of shot performance and imagery skills. VRBI training athletes showed more improvement in the 4-week period than the athletes in the VMBR + VM group, in terms of both shot performance and imagery skills. In addition, the VRBI group adapted to the imagery training earlier than the VMBR + VM group. As a result, it was seen that they showed faster development in shot performances. From these findings, it can be said that VRBI program is more efficient in terms of shot performance and imagery skills than VMBR + VM, which is the most used imaging training model.

Assessing decision making using 2D animations in elite academy footballers

Having investigated the effects of videos in the preceding chapter, this chapter assesses 2D animation, a form of presentation used in many coaching situations. The aim of this experiment was to investigate decision-making skills in different age groups (Under 16, 18 and 23) of elite academy footballers using a 2D animation simulation task of real game football scenarios. The work also explored the relationship between individual performance on the task and the actual performance on the pitch, as rated by three independent expert football coaches. This allowed us to examine whether this task is useful in predicting real-world decision-making skills. The results suggested that there was a significant difference between age groups on accuracy, by gaining more experience footballers perform better on the task. Also, the results showed a significant difference between all age groups on the response time. The under 23 age group were fastest, then the under 18 age group and finally the under 16 footballers were the slowest on the task. The correlation between performance on the task and the assessments provided by the coaches showed that 2D animation task is a sensitive measure in assessment of decision-making skills of elite academy players.

Read-the-game: System for skill-based visual exploratory activity assessment with a full body virtual reality soccer simulation

We present a novel virtual reality (VR) system to measure soccer players’ read-the-game ability. Read-the-game is a term that encompasses a conglomerate of visual exploratory behavioral patterns and cognitive elements required to make accurate in-game decisions. Our technological approach in the Sports Science domain focuses on the visuomotor component of targeted skill development in a VR simulation because VR is a powerful perception–action coupling training solution for visuomotor coordination due to its high sense of immersion and its psychological byproduct presence. Additionally, we analyze two critical aspects: psychological (i.e., sense of presence) and the human–computer interaction (HCI) domain (i.e., suitable input device for full-body immersion). To measure head movements related to visual explorations, the system tracks the user’s head excursions. Specifically, the engaged visual exploratory activity (VEA) during a VR simulation is measured frame-by-frame at runtime to study the behavior of players making passing decisions while experiencing pressure from rivals during in-game situations recreated with computer graphics (CG). Additionally, the sense of presence elicited by our system is measured via the Igroup Presence Questionnaire applied to beginner and amateur soccer players (n = 24). Regarding the HCI aspect, a comparison of input options reveals that a high presence can be achieved when using full body interactions that integrate head and body motions via a combination of an HMD and kinetic body tracking. During our system verification, a difference in the VEA performance is observed between beginner and amateur players. Moreover, we demonstrate the capacity of the system to measure the VEA while evoking immersive soccer in-match experiences with a portable VR setup.

Peripheral Vision Tests in Sports: Training Effects and Reliability of Peripheral Perception Test

Various studies suggest the importance of peripheral vision (PV) in sports. Computer-based test systems provide objective methods to measure PV. Nevertheless, the reliability and training effects are not clarified in detail. The purpose of this investigation was to present a short narrative non-systematic review on computer-based PV tests and to determine the reliability and the training effects of peripheral perception sub-test (PP) of the Vienna test system (VTS) in a test–retest design. N = 21 male athletes aged between 20 and 30 years (M = 26.15; SD = 3.1) were included. The main outcome parameters were peripheral reaction (PR), PR left (PRL), PR right (PRR), field of vision (FOV), visual angle left (VAL), and visual angle right (VAR). Reliability was assessed using intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and Bland–Altman plots. Training effects were determined by students t-test. Good reliability was observed in PR, PRL, and PRR. Moderate reliability was found in FOV, VAL, and VAR. Significant improvements between T₀ and T₁ were found in PRL with a mean difference of 0.04 s (95% CI [0.00–0.07]) and in PR with a mean difference of 0.02 s (95% CI [0.00–0.05]). For PRR, FOV, VAL, VAR, no significant differences were detected. These results indicate that PP can be applied to asses PV abilities in sports. Future research is needed to clarify the influence of test repetitions on visuomotor learning in PP. Moreover, PV tests should be cross-validated with sport-specific measurements (e.g., on-field and/or ‘virtual reality’ approaches).

Virtual reality to assess and train team ball sports performance: A scoping review

Virtual reality (VR) is a widespread technology drawing an increasing interest for players and coaches, especially in team ball sports as it offers a simple tool to simulate, analyse and train situations that are often too complex to reproduce in the field. In this review we aimed at (1) providing an overview of methodologies and outcomes of research studies using VR in team ball sports; (2) better evaluating the potential interest of VR to analyse or train team ball sports situation and (3) identifying limitations, gaps in knowledge and remaining scientific challenges. The MEDLINE and Web of Science Core Collection databases were searched, using predefined combinations of keywords. Thirty articles were retained and analysed. VR can be an interesting tool to assess or train team ball sports skills/situations as it allows researchers to control and standardise situations and focus on specific skills/subskills. Studies that used VR in team ball sports still have some limitations, mainly due to technical issues or study design. This paper also describes the way VR should be used to enhance understanding of performance in team ball sports. Additional suggestions for future research and study design are proposed.

Application of Virtual Reality in Competitive Athletes - A Review

The purpose of this study was to determine the state of the art in the area of virtual reality in competitive athletes of different levels of expertise in various disciplines and point the areas of its application. Articles published before August 2018 were considered in our review. The PubMed, SCOPUS, SportDiscus and Medline databases were searched. A combination of the following search terms was used: virtual reality, virtual environment, virtual system, athletes, sports, physical training, sport performance, physical exercises. Studies involved healthy competitive athletes. A total of 18 articles met the inclusion criteria. There were three areas of application of virtual reality to sport: performance analysis, simulation improvement and virtual training. Competitive athletes were mostly examined in a semi-immersive setting. In conclusion, virtual reality seems to play a marginal role in competitive athletes' training. Due to the fact that virtual reality interventions bring significant improvements in clinical research, well-designed randomized control trials with detailed virtual training programmes are required in the future. Practically, virtual reality is effectively and commonly used to analyse performance in competitive athletes. There is still a need of creating fully interactive VR, where athletes will be able to cooperate with a virtual partner and influence the environment.

Using Virtual Environments to Improve Real-World Motor Skills in Sports: A Systematic Review

In many settings, sports training can be difficult to organize, logistically complicated and very costly. Virtual environments (VE) have garnered interest as a tool to train real-world sports skills due to the realism and flexibility that they can deliver. A key assumption of VE-based training is that the learned skills and experiences transfer to the real world, but do they? Using PRISMA guidelines, this systematic review evaluated the available evidence regarding the transfer of motor skills from VE training to real-world sporting contexts. The initial search identified 448 articles, but only 4 of these articles met basic criteria necessary to assess real-world transfer. Key factors regarding the study design, learner characteristics and training environment of these studies are considered. In a relatively new area of research, the findings from these 4 articles are encouraging and provide initial support for the notion that skills training in a VE can improve real-world performance in sports. However, for a wider uptake of VEs in sports training, it is important that more research demonstrates real-world transfer. Study design recommendations are suggested for researchers, developers or trainers who are considering demonstrating real-world transfers from virtual to real-world environments.

Information Accrual From the Period Preceding Racket-Ball Contact for Tennis Ground Strokes: Inferences From Stochastic Masking

Previous research suggests the existence of an expert anticipatory advantage, whereby skilled sportspeople are able to predict an upcoming action by utilizing cues contained in their opponent’s body kinematics. This ability is often inferred from “occlusion” experiments: information is systematically removed from first-person videos of an opponent, for example, by stopping a tennis video at the point of racket-ball contact, yet performance, such as discrimination of shot direction, remains above chance. In this study, we assessed the expert anticipatory advantage for tennis ground strokes via a modified approach, known as “bubbles,” in which information is randomly removed from videos in each trial. The bubbles profile is then weighted by trial outcome (i.e., a correct vs. incorrect discrimination) and combined across trials into a classification array, revealing the potential cues informing the decision. In two experiments (both with N = 34 skilled tennis players) we utilized either temporal or spatial bubbles, applying them to videos running from 0.8 to 0 s before the point of racket-ball contact (cf. Jalali et al., 2018). Results from the spatial experiment were somewhat suggestive of accrual from the torso region of the body, but were not compelling. Results from the temporal experiment, on the other hand, were clear: information was accrued mainly during the period immediately prior to racket-ball contact. This result is broadly consistent with prior work using nonstochastic approaches to video manipulation, and cannot be an artifact of temporal smear from information accrued after racket-ball contact, because no such information was present.

Using video simulations and virtual reality to improve decision-making skills in basketball

A large body of literature supports the effectiveness of using video simulations to improve decision-making skills in invasion sports. However, whether these improvements are transferable (from the laboratory to the court/field) and generalizable (from trained to untrained plays) remains unknown. In addition, it remains to be determined whether presenting the video simulations using virtual reality provides an added-value. To investigate these questions, varsity-level basketball players underwent four training sessions during which they observed video clips of basketball plays presented either on a computer screen (CS group) or using a virtual reality headset (VR group). A third group watched footage from NCAA playoff games on a computer screen (CTRL group). Decision-making was assessed on-court before and after the training sessions using two types of plays: "trained" plays (presented during the CS and VR training sessions) and "untrained" plays (presented only during the on-court tests). When facing the trained plays in the posttest, both VR and CS groups significantly outperformed the CTRL group. In contrast, when facing the untrained plays, the VR group outperformed both the CS and CTRL groups. Our results indicate that CS training leads to transferable but non-generalized decision-making gains while VR training leads to transferable and generalized gains.

Exploring the Effectiveness of Immersive Video for Training Decision-Making Capability in Elite, Youth Basketball Players

Decision-making is an essential capability for success in team sport athletes. Good decision-making is underpinned by perceptual-cognitive skills that allow athletes to assess the environment and choose the correct choice from a number of alternatives. Previous research has demonstrated that decision-making can be trained "off-line" by exposing athletes to gameplay scenarios and having them make decisions based on the information presented to them. These scenarios are typically presented on television monitors or using life-size projections but recent advances in immersive video capabilities provide opportunities to improve the fidelity of training by presenting a realistic, 360° view of the competition environment. The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of immersive video training and whether training would improve decision-making performance in elite, youth basketball players (male and female). A training group completed 10 or 12 immersive video (360° video presented in a head-mounted display) training sessions in which they viewed and responded to gameplay scenarios across 3-weeks while the control group only participated in their usual training routine. Performance was assessed on an immersive video test and during small-sided games (SSG). The male training group had a large, non-significant improvement on immersive test score (+4.0 points) and in the SSG (+5.8 points) compared to the male control group (+0.3 points and +1.0 points, respectively). While both the female control group (+9.7 points) and training group (7.4 points) had large improvements in the immersive training test, only the female control improved their performance in the SSG (+6.9 points). Despite the mixed findings, there may be benefit for using immersive video for training decision-making skill in team sports. The implications of these findings (e.g., gender of the actors used to create stimuli, variety of scenarios presented) and the limitations of the experiment are discussed.

Human Actions Analysis: Templates Generation, Matching and Visualization Applied to Motion Capture of Highly-Skilled Karate Athletes

The aim of this paper is to propose and evaluate the novel method of template generation, matching, comparing and visualization applied to motion capture (kinematic) analysis. To evaluate our approach, we have used motion capture recordings (MoCap) of two highly-skilled black belt karate athletes consisting of 560 recordings of various karate techniques acquired with wearable sensors. We have evaluated the quality of generated templates; we have validated the matching algorithm that calculates similarities and differences between various MoCap data; and we have examined visualizations of important differences and similarities between MoCap data. We have concluded that our algorithms works the best when we are dealing with relatively short (2–4 s) actions that might be averaged and aligned with the dynamic time warping framework. In practice, the methodology is designed to optimize the performance of some full body techniques performed in various sport disciplines, for example combat sports and martial arts. We can also use this approach to generate templates or to compare the correct performance of techniques between various top sportsmen in order to generate a knowledge base of reference MoCap videos. The motion template generated by our method can be used for action recognition purposes. We have used the DTW classifier with angle-based features to classify various karate kicks. We have performed leave-one-out action recognition for the Shorin-ryu and Oyama karate master separately. In this case, 100% actions were correctly classified. In another experiment, we used templates generated from Oyama master recordings to classify Shorin-ryu master recordings and vice versa. In this experiment, the overall recognition rate was 94.2%, which is a very good result for this type of complex action.

Vection Latency Is Reduced by Bone-Conducted Vibration and Noisy Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation

Studies of the illusory sense of self-motion elicited by a moving visual surround (‘vection’) have revealed key insights about how sensory information is integrated. Vection usually occurs after a delay of several seconds following visual motion onset, whereas self-motion in the natural environment is perceived immediately. It has been suggested that this latency relates to the sensory mismatch between visual and vestibular signals at motion onset. Here, we tested three techniques with the potential to reduce sensory mismatch in order to shorten vection onset latency: noisy galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) and bone conducted vibration (BCV) at the mastoid processes, and body vibration applied to the lower back. In Experiment 1, we examined vection latency for wide field visual rotations about the roll axis and applied a burst of stimulation at the start of visual motion. Both GVS and BCV reduced vection latency by two seconds compared to the control condition, whereas body vibration had no effect on latency. In Experiment 2, the visual stimulus rotated about the pitch, roll, or yaw axis and we found a similar facilitation of vection by both BCV and GVS in each case. In a control experiment, we confirmed that air-conducted sound administered through headphones was not sufficient to reduce vection onset latency. Together the results suggest that noisy vestibular stimulation facilitates vection, likely due to an upweighting of visual information caused by a reduction in vestibular sensory reliability.