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Williams GKR, Vicinanza D, Attias M, Armand S. Causal interactions and dynamic stability between limbs while walking with imposed leg constraints. Front Hum Neurosci 2024; 18:1367952. [PMID: 39301539 PMCID: PMC11410618 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1367952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 08/15/2024] [Indexed: 09/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Aim To investigate the dynamics of the motor control system during walking by examining the complexity, stability, and causal relationships of leg motions. Specifically, the study focuses on gait under both bilateral and unilateral constraints induced by a passive exoskeleton designed to replicate gastrocnemius contractures. Methods Kinematic data was collected as 10 healthy participants walked at a self-selected speed. A new Complexity-Instability Index (CII) of the leg motions was defined as a function of the Correlation Dimension and the Largest Lyapunov Exponent. Causal interactions between the leg motions are explored using Convergent Cross Mapping. Results Normal walking is characterized by a high mutual drive of each leg to the other, where CII is lowest for both legs (complexity of each leg motion is low and stability high). The effect of the bilateral emulated contractures is a reduced drive of each leg to the other and an increased CII for both legs. With unilateral emulated contracture, the mechanically constrained leg strongly drives the unconstrained leg, and CII was significantly higher for the constrained leg compared to normal walking. Conclusion Redundancy in limb motions is used to support causal interactions, reducing complexity and increasing stability in our leg dynamics during walking. The role of redundancy is to allow adaptability above being able to satisfy the overall biomechanical problem; and to allow the system to interact optimally. From an applied perspective, important characteristics of functional movement patterns might be captured by these nonlinear and causal variables, as well as the biomechanical aspects typically studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genevieve K R Williams
- Department of Public Health and Sports Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Domenico Vicinanza
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Attias
- School of Health Sciences, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland (HES-SO), Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Stéphane Armand
- Kinesiology Laboratory, Geneva University Hospitals and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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Silva LWND, Moura VTGD, Leal IDS, Nascimento MDM, Trombini-Souza F. Is foot clearance influenced by different types of dual task in once-only faller community-dwelling older adults? Gait Posture 2023; 103:27-31. [PMID: 37084625 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2023.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 04/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tripping is one of the main causes of falls in older adults and has an important association with minimum toe clearance (MTC). MTC variability while performing alternating (ADT) or concurrent (CDT) dual-task activities may be a useful gait parameter to differentiate once-only fallers from non-faller older adults. RESEARCH QUESTION Is the MTC variability influenced by ADT and CDT in once-only faller community-dwelling older adults? METHODS Twenty-two community-dwelling older adults with a self-report of up to one fall in the last 12 months were allocated to the fallers group and 38 to the non-fallers group. Gait data were collected by two foot-worn inertial sensors (Physilog® 5, GaitUp, Lausanne, Switzerland). MTC mean magnitude and variability, as well as the stride-to-stride variability, stride time and length, lower limb peak angular velocity, and foot forward linear speed at the MTC instant, were calculated across approximately 50 gait cycles for each participant and condition using the GaitUp Analyzer software (GaitUp, Lausanne, Switzerland). The statistical analyzes were performed in the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), v.22.0, using generalized mixed linear models, adopting an alpha of 5%. RESULTS AND SIGNIFICANCE No interaction effect was observed; however, faller participants reduced the MTC variability (standard deviation) [(mean difference, MD = -0.099 cm; confidence interval, 95%CI = -0.183 to -0.015)], regardless of the condition. CDT compared to a single task (only gait) reduced the mean magnitude of the foot forward linear speed (MD=-0.264 m/s; 95%CI=-0.462 to -0.067), peak angular velocity (MD = -25.205 degrees/s; 95%CI = -45.507 to -4.904), and gait speed (MD = -0.104 m/s; 95%CI = -0.179 to -0.029), regardless of the group. These results suggest that MTC variability, regardless of condition, may be a promising gait parameter to differentiate once-only faller community-dwelling older adults from non-fallers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Iara Dos Santos Leal
- Department of Physical Therapy, University of Pernambuco, Petrolina, PE, Brazil; Master's and Doctoral Programs in Rehabilitation and Functional Performance, University of Pernambuco, Petrolina, PE, Brazil
| | | | - Francis Trombini-Souza
- Department of Physical Therapy, University of Pernambuco, Petrolina, PE, Brazil; Master's and Doctoral Programs in Rehabilitation and Functional Performance, University of Pernambuco, Petrolina, PE, Brazil.
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Müller R, Hamacher D, Keune PM, Oschmann P. Stability of sensor-based gait parameters reassessed after a period of one year in people with multiple sclerosis. BMC Neurol 2023; 23:120. [PMID: 36964510 PMCID: PMC10037853 DOI: 10.1186/s12883-023-03168-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Currently, there are several studies showing that wearable inertial sensors are highly sensitive in the detection of gait disturbances in people with multiple sclerosis (PwMS), showing excellent reliability within one or 7-14 days. However, it is not known how stable these gait parameters remain over a longer period of time. This is surprising, because many treatments last longer than two weeks. Thus, the purpose of the current study was to examine gait parameters obtained by means of wearable inertial sensors during a 6-min walk and to reassess these parameters after a period of one year. METHODS Fifty PwMS (without a relapse or a recent change in the Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) or treatment) and 20 healthy participants were examined at two assessment points (interval between assessments: 14.4 ± 6.6 months). At each assessment point, all participants had to complete a 6-min walking test, an observer-rater test (Berg Balance Scale, BBS) and a Timed-up and Go Test (TUG). To measure mean gait parameters (i.e. walking speed, stride length, stride time, the duration of the stance and swing phase and minimum toe-to-floor distance), as well as the intraindividual standard deviation of each mean gait parameter, wearable inertial sensors were utilized. RESULTS We found that even after one year all mean gait parameters showed excellent Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC between 0.75 and 0.95) in PwMS. Looking at MS subgroups, the ICCs were slightly higher in MS subgroup 2 (EDSS 2.0-5.0) than those in MS subgroup 1 (EDSS 0.0-1.5) and healthy controls. Compared to the mean gait parameters, parameters of gait variability showed only good-to-fair ICC values in PwMS. Concerning BBS and TUG, the ICC values after one year were close to the ICC values of the measured mean gait parameters. CONCLUSIONS Due to the excellent stability of mean gait parameters after one year, these sensor-based gait parameters can be identified as clinically relevant markers to evaluate treatment effects over a longer (several months) period of time in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy Müller
- Department of Neurology, Medical Campus Upper Frankonia, Klinikum Bayreuth GmbH, Bayreuth, Germany.
| | - Daniel Hamacher
- Department of Sports Science, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Philipp M Keune
- Department of Neurology, Medical Campus Upper Frankonia, Klinikum Bayreuth GmbH, Bayreuth, Germany
- Department of Cognition, Emotion and Neuropsychology, Otto-Friedrich-University, Bamberg, Germany
| | - Patrick Oschmann
- Department of Neurology, Medical Campus Upper Frankonia, Klinikum Bayreuth GmbH, Bayreuth, Germany
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Uno Y, Ogasawara I, Konda S, Yoshida N, Otsuka N, Kikukawa Y, Tsujii A, Nakata K. Validity of Spatio-Temporal Gait Parameters in Healthy Young Adults Using a Motion-Sensor-Based Gait Analysis System (ORPHE ANALYTICS) during Walking and Running. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 23:s23010331. [PMID: 36616928 PMCID: PMC9823871 DOI: 10.3390/s23010331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Motion sensors are widely used for gait analysis. The validity of commercial gait analysis systems is of great interest because calculating position/angle-level gait parameters potentially produces an error in the integration process of the motion sensor data; moreover, the validity of ORPHE ANALYTICS, a motion-sensor-based gait analysis system, has not yet been examined. We examined the validity of the gait parameters calculated using ORPHE ANALYTICS relative to those calculated using conventional optical motion capture. Nine young adults performed gait tasks on a treadmill at speeds of 2−12 km/h. The three-dimensional position data and acceleration and angular velocity data of the feet were collected. The gait parameters were calculated from motion sensor data using ORPHE ANALYTICS, and optical motion capture data. Intraclass correlation coefficients [ICC(2,1)] were calculated for relative validities. Eight items, namely, stride duration, stride length, stride frequency, stride speed, vertical height, stance phase duration, swing phase duration, and sagittal angleIC exhibited excellent relative validities [ICC(2,1) > 0.9]. In contrast, sagittal angleTO and frontal angleIC demonstrated good [ICC(2,1) = 0.892−0.833] and moderate relative validity [ICC(2,1) = 0.566−0.627], respectively. ORPHE ANALYTICS was found to exhibit excellent relative validities for most gait parameters. These results suggest its feasibility for gait analysis outside the laboratory setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Uno
- Department of Health and Sport Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
- ORPHE Inc., Shibuya 151-0053, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Issei Ogasawara
- Department of Health and Sport Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
- Department of Sports Medical Biomechanics, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shoji Konda
- Department of Health and Sport Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
- Department of Sports Medical Biomechanics, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
| | - Natsuki Yoshida
- Department of Health and Sport Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
| | | | | | - Akira Tsujii
- Department of Sports Medical Biomechanics, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
| | - Ken Nakata
- Department of Health and Sport Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
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Naka T, Hayashi T, Sugyo A, Watanabe R, Towatari F, Maeda T. The effects of lower extremity deep sensory impairments on walking capability in patients with incomplete cervical spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med 2022; 45:287-292. [PMID: 32701408 PMCID: PMC8986307 DOI: 10.1080/10790268.2020.1788879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: To analyze the impact of lower extremity deep sensory impairment on the walking capability of patients with incomplete cervical spinal cord injury.Design: Retrospective cohort study.Setting: Spinal Injuries Center, Fukuoka, Japan.Participants: Patients with incomplete cervical spinal cord injury who were transferred to the Spinal Injuries Center within 2 weeks of injury and whose progress was monitored for 6 months postinjury were included. Sixty-three patients with a lower extremity motor score of 42 points or more were enrolled. They were divided into lower extremity deep sensory impairment (16 patients) and normal (47 patients) groups, and their walking capability was compared.Interventions: Not applicable.Outcome Measures: Upper and lower extremity motor scores, the presence or absence of deep sensation impairment, and walking capability indices at 6 months postinjury were evaluated.Results: The deep sensory impairment group performed significantly worse than the normal group across items in the Walking Index for Spinal Cord Injury II and in the indoor and outdoor mobility items of the Spinal Cord Independence Measure III. Indoor and outdoor mobility independence levels decreased further in the lower extremity deep sensory impairment group than in the normal group.Conclusions: The presence of lower extremity deep sensation impairments was an important factor affecting the achievement of independent walking capabilities in patients with incomplete cervical spinal cord injury. Hence, when patients with incomplete cervical spinal cord injury undergo walking training, not only their lower extremity muscle strength but also their level of deep sensation impairment must be evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoki Naka
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Spinal Injuries Center, Fukuoka, Japan,Correspondence to: Tomoki Naka, Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Spinal Injuries Center, 550-4, Igisu, Iizuka-city, Fukuoka820-8508, Japan; Ph.: 0948-24-7500.
| | - Tetsuo Hayashi
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Spinal Injuries Center, Fukuoka, Japan,Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Spinal Injuries Center, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Atsushi Sugyo
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Spinal Injuries Center, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Ryouichi Watanabe
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Spinal Injuries Center, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Fumihiro Towatari
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Spinal Injuries Center, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Takeshi Maeda
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Spinal Injuries Center, Fukuoka, Japan
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Unver B, Sevik K, Karatosun V. Reliability of the Modified Four-Square Step Test in Revision Total
Knee Arthroplasty: A Cross-Sectional Study. PHYSIKALISCHE MEDIZIN, REHABILITATIONSMEDIZIN, KURORTMEDIZIN 2022. [DOI: 10.1055/a-1750-6149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Background The modified four-square step test (mFSST) assesses dynamic
balance by rapid stepping in different directions. This study aimed to evaluate
the reliability of the mFSST in patients who had undergone revision total knee
artroplasty (rTKA).
Methods The study was designed as a cross-sectional study. The mFSST was
administered on 22 patients with a history of rTKA. Two trials were performed
and the patients rested between trials to avoid fatigue.
Results The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) for the mFSST was
0.83. The standard error of measurement and the smallest real difference
(95%. confidence level) were 0.67 and 1.85 respectively.
Conclusion The mFSST showed good reliability in patients who had undergone
rTKA. The mFSST is a reliable measure for the assessment of gait variability,
dynamic balance, walking skills and mobility. It can easily detect changes in
rTKA patients with simple equipment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bayram Unver
- Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation, Dokuz Eylul Universitesi,
İzmir, Turkey
| | - Kevser Sevik
- Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation, Dokuz Eylul Universitesi,
İzmir, Turkey
- Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation, Izmir Katip Celebi University,
Turkey
| | - Vasfi Karatosun
- Orthopaedics and Traumatology, Dokuz Eylul Universitesi,
İZMİR, Turkey
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7
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The association between motor modules and movement primitives of gait: A muscle and kinematic synergy study. J Biomech 2022; 134:110997. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2022.110997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Müller R, Hamacher D, Hansen S, Oschmann P, Keune PM. Wearable inertial sensors are highly sensitive in the detection of gait disturbances and fatigue at early stages of multiple sclerosis. BMC Neurol 2021; 21:337. [PMID: 34481481 PMCID: PMC8418019 DOI: 10.1186/s12883-021-02361-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The aim of the current study was to examine multiple gait parameters obtained by wearable inertial sensors and their sensitivity to clinical status in early multiple sclerosis (MS). Further, a potential correlation between gait parameters and subjective fatigue was explored. Methods Automated gait analyses were carried out on 88 MS patients and 31 healthy participants. To measure gait parameters (i.e. walking speed, stride length, stride duration, duration of stance and swing phase, minimal toe-to-floor distance), wearable inertial sensors were utilized throughout a 6-min 25-ft walk. Additionally, self-reported subjective fatigue was assessed. Results Mean gait parameters consistently revealed significant differences between healthy participants and MS patients from as early as an Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) value of 1.5 onwards. Further, MS patients showed a significant linear trend in all parameters, reflecting continuously deteriorating gait performance throughout the test. This linear deterioration trend showed significant correlations with fatigue. Conclusions Wearable inertial sensors are highly sensitive in the detection of gait disturbances, even in early MS, where global scales such as the EDSS do not provide any clinical information about deviations in gait behavior. Moreover, these measures provide a linear trend parameter of gait deterioration that may serve as a surrogate marker of fatigue. In sum, these results suggest that classic timed walking tests in routine clinical practice should be replaced by readily and automatically applicable gait assessments, as provided by inertial sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy Müller
- GaitLab, Klinikum Bayreuth GmbH, Bayreuth, Germany. .,Department of Neurology, Klinikum Bayreuth GmbH, Bayreuth, Germany.
| | - Daniel Hamacher
- Department of Sports Science, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Sascha Hansen
- Department of Neurology, Klinikum Bayreuth GmbH, Bayreuth, Germany.,Institute of Psychology, Otto-Friedrich-University, Bamberg, Germany
| | - Patrick Oschmann
- Department of Neurology, Klinikum Bayreuth GmbH, Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Philipp M Keune
- Department of Neurology, Klinikum Bayreuth GmbH, Bayreuth, Germany.,Institute of Psychology, Otto-Friedrich-University, Bamberg, Germany
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Measuring Gait Stability in People with Multiple Sclerosis Using Different Sensor Locations and Time Scales. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21124001. [PMID: 34200530 PMCID: PMC8228118 DOI: 10.3390/s21124001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The evaluation of local divergence exponent (LDE) has been proposed as a common gait stability measure in people with multiple sclerosis (PwMS). However, differences in methods of determining LDE may lead to different results. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to determine the effect of different sensor locations and LDE measures on the sensitivity to discriminate PwMS. To accomplish this, 86 PwMS and 30 healthy participants were instructed to complete a six-minute walk wearing inertial sensors attached to the foot, trunk and lumbar spine. Due to possible fatigue effects, the LDE short (~50% of stride) and very short (~5% of stride) were calculated for the remaining first, middle and last 30 strides. The effect of group (PwMS vs. healthy participants) and time (begin, mid, end) and the effect of Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) and time were assessed with linear random intercepts models. We found that perturbations seem to be better compensated in healthy participants on a longer time scale based on trunk movements and on a shorter time scale (almost instantaneously) according to the foot kinematics. Therefore, we suggest to consider both sensor location and time scale of LDE when calculating local gait stability in PwMS.
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Choi M, Ahn N, Park J, Kim K. 12-Week Exercise Training of Knee Joint and Squat Movement Improves Gait Ability in Older Women. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18041515. [PMID: 33562705 PMCID: PMC7915473 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18041515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This study analyzed the effects of an exercise training program consisting of a knee joint complex exercise device (leg-link system) with digitally controlled active motion function and squat movement on physical fitness and gait ability of elderly women aged 70 or above. Fifty four (54) elderly women aged 70 or above were divided into three groups as control group (n = 18), aerobic training group (n = 18), and combined training group with resistance and aerobic exercise (n = 18). Health-related physical fitness, gait ability-related physical fitness, and the temporal and spatial parameters of gait ability were compared. The health-related physical fitness after the 12-week training was not significantly altered in control group, whereas combined training group showed significant increase in all factors (p < 0.05) and aerobic training group showed significant increase (p < 0.05) only in the physical efficiency index. The gait ability-related physical fitness and all items of the temporal and spatial parameters of gait were found to have significantly increased (p < 0.05) in combined training group after the 12-week exercise training; however, in aerobic training group, only the factors related to muscular endurance and balance showed significant increase (p < 0.05). This study suggested that the exercise training consisting of knee joint complex exercise with digitally controlled active motion function and squat exercise for strengthening lower extremities and core muscles had positive effects on enhancing the ambulatory competence in elderly women.
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Argunsah Bayram H, Yalcin B. The influence of biofeedback on physiological and kinematic variables of treadmill running. INT J PERF ANAL SPOR 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/24748668.2020.1861898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Begum Yalcin
- Department of Medical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Acibadem Mehmet Ali Aydinlar University, Istanbul, Turkey
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Tucker CB, Hanley B. Increases in speed do not change gait symmetry or variability in world-class race walkers. J Sports Sci 2020; 38:2758-2764. [PMID: 32723033 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2020.1798730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to analyse changes in gait variability and symmetry with increasing speed in race walkers. Eighteen international athletes race walked on an instrumented treadmill at speeds of 11, 12, 13 and 14 km·h-1 in a randomised order for 3 min each. Spatiotemporal and ground reaction force data were recorded for 30 s at each speed. Gait variability was measured using median absolute deviation and inter-leg symmetry was measured using the symmetry angle. There was an overall effect of speed on all absolute values except push-off force, but symmetry and variability (except flight time) did not change with increased speed, step length and step frequency. Most athletes were asymmetrical for at least one variable, but none was asymmetrical for more than half of the variables measured. Therefore, being asymmetrical or having higher variability (<5%) in a few variables is normal. Taking all findings together, practitioners should exercise caution when deciding on the need for corrective interventions and should not be concerned that increasing gait speed could increase injury risk through changes to athletes' asymmetry. Race walking coaches should test at competition speeds to ensure that flight times, and any variability or asymmetry, are measured appropriately.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine B Tucker
- Carnegie School of Sport, Headingley Campus, Leeds Beckett University , Leeds, UK
| | - Brian Hanley
- Carnegie School of Sport, Headingley Campus, Leeds Beckett University , Leeds, UK
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Koch M, Eckardt N, Zech A, Hamacher D. Compensation of stochastic time-continuous perturbations during walking in healthy young adults: An analysis of the structure of gait variability. Gait Posture 2020; 80:253-259. [PMID: 32559644 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2020.05.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Revised: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND During everyday locomotion, we cope with various internal or external perturbations (e.g. uneven surface). Uncertainty exists on how unpredictable external perturbations increase noise within the motor system and if they are compensated by employing covariation of the limb joints or rather due to decreased sensitivity of an altered posture. RESEARCH QUESTION Do continuous stochastic perturbations affect the structure of gait variability in young and healthy adults? METHODS In a cross-over study, gait kinematics of 21 healthy young sports students were registered during treadmill walking with and without continuous stochastic perturbations. Using the TNC method, the following aspects were analyzed: (a) the sensitivity of body posture to perturbations ('tolerance') decreasing gait variability, (b) the unstructured motor 'noise' increasing gait variability and (c) the amount of 'covariation' of the limb joints. RESULTS Compared to normal walking, gait variability was significantly increased (p < .001) during walking with perturbations. The negative effect of noise was partly compensated by improved 'covariation' of leg joints (p < .001). The aspect 'tolerance' had a small effect on increasing gait variability during stance phase (p < .001) and decreasing gait variability during swing phase (p < .001). SIGNIFICANCE Increased motor noise due to external perturbations is partly compensated by improved covariation of the limb joints. However, the effect of an altered posture slightly affects gait variability. Further studies should focus on different populations (e.g. older participants) to see if they use the same mechanism (improved covariation) to compensate for stochastic perturbations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monique Koch
- Institute of Sports Science, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany.
| | - Nils Eckardt
- Department of Sport and Movement Science, Institute of Sport Science, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany; Department for Exercise & Health, Institute of Sport Science, Leibniz University Hannover, Hannover, Germany.
| | - Astrid Zech
- Institute of Sports Science, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany.
| | - Daniel Hamacher
- Institute of Sports Science, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany.
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Influence of sampling frequency and number of strides on recurrence quantifiers extracted from gait data. Comput Biol Med 2020; 119:103673. [PMID: 32339118 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2020.103673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Revised: 02/22/2020] [Accepted: 02/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In this study, the influence of the sampling frequency and number of strides on recurrence quantifiers extracted from gait data was investigated in order to provide baseline values and preserve the system's non-linear dynamical characteristics expressed by these recurrence quantifiers. Recurrence quantifiers were extracted from a recurrence plot (RP), which required the reconstruction of a high-dimensional state space capable of reproducing the dynamical characteristics of the analyzed system. In this study, the following quantifiers were extracted: rate of recurrence (RR), determinism (DET), average diagonal lines length (AVG), maximum diagonal lines length (MaxL), Shannon entropy (EntD), and measure of trend (TREND). Data collected during treadmill walking were statistically analyzed to compare the distribution characteristics (mean, median, and standard deviation) and the quantifiers' correlation with those obtained from a control time series with an acquisition time corresponding to 150 strides and a 100-Hz sampling frequency, which are common values used in gait studies. It was not possible to reduce the number of strides for the MaxL or TREND. However, for the RR, DET, AVG, and EntD, it was possible to reduce the number of strides by 60% when analyzed together. The minimum sampling frequency required to extract all quantifiers simultaneously was 100 Hz. This potential reduction in the number of strides is appropriate for evaluating fast gait events, with short temporal localization in the RP, by applying the sliding window method to the recurrence plot.
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Williams BK, Sanders RH, Ryu JH, Graham-Smith P, Sinclair PJ. The kinematic differences between accurate and inaccurate squash forehand drives for athletes of different skill levels. J Sports Sci 2020; 38:1115-1123. [DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2020.1742971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin K. Williams
- Sport Science Department, Aspire Academy, Doha, Qatar
- Discipline of Exercise and Sport Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Ross H. Sanders
- Discipline of Exercise and Sport Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | | | - Philip Graham-Smith
- Sport Science Department, Aspire Academy, Doha, Qatar
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia
| | - Peter J. Sinclair
- Discipline of Exercise and Sport Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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Hamacher D, Koch M, Löwe S, Zech A. Less noise during dual-task walking in healthy young adults: an analysis of different gait variability components. Exp Brain Res 2019; 237:3185-3193. [PMID: 31595332 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-019-05664-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Dual-task costs of gait (variability) parameters are frequently used to probe the grade of automaticity of walking. However, recent studies reported contradicting dual-task costs for different gait variability measures within the same cohorts. The effects of a dual-task on the gait pattern are, thus, not fully understood. The aim of the current study was to analyze the different gait variability components ('Tolerance', 'Noise', and 'Covariation') during dual-task walking compared to single-task walking. In an experimental study, 21 young and healthy adults (11 males, 10 females, age: 24 ± 3 years) were included. The participants completed three experimental conditions: (a) single-task walking, (b) dual-task walking (serial-seven subtractions), and (c) cognitive single task in sitting position. To analyze different gait variability components, we applied a method which distinguishes the three components: 'Tolerance', 'Noise', and 'Covariation' (TNC). To test for differences, we used the statistical parametric mapping method. Compared to single-task walking, the results depict lower gait variability of the result parameters during the dual-task condition at 0-15% (p = 0.010) and 94-100% (p = 0.040) of the stance phase and 0-63% (p < 0.001) during the swing phase. The decreased result parameter variability was due to less (sensorimotor) 'Noise' (stance: 2-100%, p < 0.001; swing: 2-59%, p < 0.001) during the dual-task walking condition. In further studies, the sources of the reduced unstructured (sensorimotor) noise in the dual-task condition should be analyzed to better understand the effect of a cognitive dual task on the gait pattern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Hamacher
- Institute of Sports Science, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07749, Jena, Germany.
| | - Monique Koch
- Institute of Sports Science, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07749, Jena, Germany
| | - Susanna Löwe
- Institute of Sports Science, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07749, Jena, Germany
| | - Astrid Zech
- Institute of Sports Science, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07749, Jena, Germany
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Sanders RH, Button C, McCabe CB. Variability of upper body kinematics in a highly constrained task - sprint swimming. Eur J Sport Sci 2019; 20:624-632. [PMID: 31537166 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2019.1658808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Before examining the effect of changing constraints on skill adaptation, it is useful to know the tolerable variability of a movement pattern for optimal performance. Tolerable variability may vary throughout the period of task performance as some parts of the movement pattern may be more important than others. The purpose of this study was to quantify the inter-trial variability of performance variables, and hand path as the task-relevant parameter, of skilled front crawl swimmers during 25 m sprints. It was hypothesised that the wrist paths would have smaller inter-trial variability during the below water phase than during the above water phase. Twelve skilled swimmers performed four 25 m front crawl sprints which were recorded by six phased locked video cameras for three-dimensional analysis. Standard deviations and time series repeatability (R 2) of the right and left wrist displacement were determined. On average, swimmers varied their sprint speed between trials by <1.5%. The spatio-temporal patterns of wrist paths varied by <3 cm in all directions (horizontal, vertical & lateral). There was no significant difference in inter-trial variability between above and below water phases. Swimmers increased wrist path consistency at the critical events of water entry in the horizontal and lateral directions and at exit for the horizontal direction. This study established levels of variability in spatio-temporal movement patterns of the paths of the wrist in sprint swimming and provided evidence that swimmers minimise variability for key events, in this case, the position of the wrists at water entry and exit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ross H Sanders
- Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Chris Button
- School of Physical Education, Sport and Exercise Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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Ribeiro DM, Bueno GAS, Gervásio FM, Menezes RLD. Foot-ground clearance characteristics in women: A comparison across different ages. Gait Posture 2019; 69:121-125. [PMID: 30708094 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2019.01.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Revised: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tripping is a common event leading to falls amongst elderly. Minimum foot clearance (MFC) is a critical swing phase control factor associated with tripping and falls. RESEARCH QUESTION Are there differences in MFC characteristics among three age groups of women and are there association between MFC and lower limb kinematics? METHODS Cross-sectional observational study. Three-dimensional gait analysis of 55 healthy women. ANOVA was used to compare (p<0.05) MFC characteristics among young, middle-aged and elderly groups. Multiple Linear Regression Analysis was used to test prediction over MFC. RESULTS Elderly women walked slower, with lower MFC and lower maximum foot velocity during swing (MFV) than young and middle-aged women. There were more hip flexion and less ankle dorsiflexion during MFC among elderly. There is a strong positive relationship between dorsiflexion and MFC. And ankle dorsiflexion was the most predictive variable over MFC. SIGNIFICANCE Elderly women walk slower with lower MFC value and less ankle dorsiflexion than gender-matched young controls. Increased hip flexion may represent a gait adaptation to avoid tripping. Gait speed had no effect on those findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darlan Martins Ribeiro
- Post-Graduation Program in Health Science and Technologies of the University of Brasília (UnB), Ceilândia Campus, Brasília, DF, Brazil; Movement Analisis Loboratory Dr. Cláudio A. Borges, State University of Goiás (UEG), Goiânia, Brazil.
| | - Guilherme Augusto Santos Bueno
- Post-Graduation Program in Health Science and Technologies of the University of Brasília (UnB), Ceilândia Campus, Brasília, DF, Brazil.
| | - Flavia Martins Gervásio
- Movement Analisis Loboratory Dr. Cláudio A. Borges, State University of Goiás (UEG), Goiânia, Brazil.
| | - Ruth Losada de Menezes
- Post-Graduation Program in Health Science and Technologies of the University of Brasília (UnB), Ceilândia Campus, Brasília, DF, Brazil.
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Wanner P, Schmautz T, Kluge F, Eskofier B, Pfeifer K, Steib S. Ankle angle variability during running in athletes with chronic ankle instability and copers. Gait Posture 2019; 68:329-334. [PMID: 30572182 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2018.11.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2018] [Revised: 11/27/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Individuals with chronic ankle instability (CAI) demonstrate altered ankle kinematics during running compared to uninjured individuals; however, little is known about differences between individuals with CAI and those who recover successfully from an index sprain (copers). METHODS Thirty-two young male athletes with prior ankle sprain were investigated, eighteen with CAI and fourteen copers. Instrumented running analysis was performed on a treadmill at two velocities: moderate (2.63 ± 0.20 m/s, rate of perceived of exertion = 14/20); and high velocity (3.83 ± 0.20 m/s). Mean ankle kinematics and stride-to-stride variability were analyzed applying the statistical parametric mapping method. RESULTS At both running velocities, no statistically significant differences in mean ankle kinematics were observed. At high running velocity, athletes with CAI demonstrated significantly increased frontal plane variability at 17-19% of the running gait cycle (p = 0.009). Additionally, large between-group effect sizes (Hedges' g ≥ 0.8) may potentially indicate increased frontal plane variability during initial contact and terminal swing, as well as decreased variability in sagittal plane at 34-35% in CAI. A similar tendency existed at moderate velocity, with large effect sizes indicating decreased dorsiflexion at 75-89% in CAI, as well as an increased frontal plane variability at 16-25%, and 97-99%. DISCUSSION Compared to copers, individuals with CAI demonstrate increased variability of ankle kinematics - mainly in the frontal plane and particularly during stance phase - while mean ankle kinematics seems minimally affected. Increased ankle variability at high running velocity may best reflect persisting sensorimotor control deficits in athletes with chronically instable ankles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Wanner
- Department of Sport Science and Sport, Division of Exercise and Health, Friedrich-Alexander-University (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Gebbertstrasse 123b, 91058, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Thomas Schmautz
- Department of Sport Science and Sport, Division of Exercise and Health, Friedrich-Alexander-University (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Gebbertstrasse 123b, 91058, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Felix Kluge
- Pattern Recognition Lab, Department of Computer Science, FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, Martensstrasse 3, 91058, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Björn Eskofier
- Pattern Recognition Lab, Department of Computer Science, FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, Martensstrasse 3, 91058, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Klaus Pfeifer
- Department of Sport Science and Sport, Division of Exercise and Health, Friedrich-Alexander-University (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Gebbertstrasse 123b, 91058, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Simon Steib
- Department of Sport Science and Sport, Division of Exercise and Health, Friedrich-Alexander-University (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Gebbertstrasse 123b, 91058, Erlangen, Germany.
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The Effect of a Cognitive Dual Task on the Control of Minimum Toe Clearance While Walking. Motor Control 2019; 23:344-353. [PMID: 30599803 DOI: 10.1123/mc.2018-0006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the current study was to evaluate the effect of a cognitive dual task on minimum toe clearance (MTC) variability while walking. In a randomized cross-over design, gait kinematics of 25 older (70 ± 6 years) and 45 younger adults (25 ± 2 years) were captured during normal walking and dual-task walking. Variability of stride time, stride length, and MTC were calculated. Differences between normal versus dual-task walking were assessed using Wilcoxon tests. Compared with normal walking, dual-task walking caused an increase in stride time variability (older adults: p < .001 and younger adults: p < .001), while the variability of MTC decreased (older adults: p = .032 and younger adults: p = .012). MTC seems to be a task-relevant gait parameter that is controlled with high priority to preserve its variability under challenging conditions.
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21
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Hamacher D, Zech A. Development of functional variability during the motor learning process of a complex cyclic movement. J Biomech 2018; 77:124-130. [PMID: 30049449 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2018.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 06/14/2018] [Accepted: 07/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Traditionally, movement variability is considered an indicator for sensorimotor malfunctioning. However, functional movement variability is also a result of compensation mechanisms e.g. to account for prior movement deviations and is, therefore, crucial for stable movements. The aim of this study was to analyze functional variability during motor learning of a complex cyclic task. Thirteen young participants practised riding a Pedalo® slalom until they were able to complete the task without errors. Since trunk movements are controlled with high priority, we analyzed trunk kinematics as a result parameter. Since lower extremities affect the result parameter, foot, thigh and pelvis kinematics are considered execution parameters. The movement variability for result and execution parameters was determined for the first (poor performance), an intermediate (medium performance) and the last (good performance) training sessions. Furthermore, the variability ratio (execution/result parameter) was calculated as a measure of functional variability. Movement variability of the result parameter decreased significantly with increasing expertise. In contrast, movement variability of all execution parameters increased significantly from measurements representing poor to medium performance. No change from medium to good performance was found. Functional variability increased over time in all execution parameters. Since the movement variability of all execution parameters did not decrease with increasing Pedalo performance, applying a traditional interpretation approach of movement variability would have led to completely wrong conclusions. Possible mechanisms explaining the increased movement variability are discussed. The variability ratio seems to be the only parameter that can reveal improved sensorimotor functioning during all analyzed stages of motor learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Hamacher
- Institute of Sport Science, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07749 Jena, Germany.
| | - Astrid Zech
- Institute of Sport Science, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07749 Jena, Germany.
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22
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Qiao M, Feld JA, Franz JR. Aging effects on leg joint variability during walking with balance perturbations. Gait Posture 2018; 62:27-33. [PMID: 29510323 PMCID: PMC6069536 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2018.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Revised: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Older adults are more susceptible to balance perturbations during walking than young adults. However, we lack an individual joint-level understanding of how aging affects the neuromechanical strategies used to accommodate balance perturbations. RESEARCH QUESTION We investigated gait phase-dependence in and aging effects on leg joint kinematic variability during walking with balance perturbations. We hypothesized that leg joint variability would: 1) vary across the gait cycle and 2) increase with balance perturbations. We also hypothesized that perturbation effects on leg joint kinematic variability would be larger and more pervasive in older versus young adults. METHODS We collected leg joint kinematics in young and older adults walking with and without mediolateral optical flow perturbations of different amplitudes. RESULTS We first found that leg joint variability during walking is gait phase-dependent, with step-to-step adjustments occurring predominantly during push-off and early swing. Second, young adults accommodated perturbations almost exclusively by increasing coronal plane hip joint variability, likely to adjust step width. Third, perturbations elicited larger and more pervasive increases in all joint kinematic outcome measures in older adults. Finally, we also provide insight into which joints contribute more to foot placement variability in walking, adding that variability in sagittal plane knee and coronal plane hip joint angles contributed most to that in step length and step width, respectively. SIGNIFICANCE Taken together, our findings may be highly relevant to identifying specific joint-level therapeutic targets to mitigate balance impairment in our aging population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mu Qiao
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University
| | - Jody A. Feld
- Human Movement Science Curriculum, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
| | - Jason R. Franz
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University,Author for correspondence: Jason R. Franz, , Phone: (919) 966-6983, Fax: (919) 966-2963, 152 MacNider Hall, CB 7575, Chapel Hill, NC 27599
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23
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Hamacher D, Schley F, Hollander K, Zech A. Effects of manipulated auditory information on local dynamic gait stability. Hum Mov Sci 2018; 58:219-223. [PMID: 29486428 DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2018.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2017] [Revised: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Auditory information affects sensorimotor control of gait. Noise or active noise cancelling alters the perception of movement related sounds and, probably, gait stability. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the effects of noise cancelling on gait stability. Twenty-five healthy older subjects (70 ± 6 years) were included into a randomized cross-over study. Gait stability (largest Lyapunov exponent) in normal overground walking was determined for the following hearing conditions: no manipulation and active noise cancelling. To assess differences between the two hearing conditions (no manipulation vs. active noise cancelling), Student's repeated measures t-test was used. The results indicate an improvement of gait stability when using active noise cancelling compared to normal hearing. In conclusion, our results indicate that auditory information might not be needed for a stable gait in elderly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Hamacher
- Institute of Sport Science, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07749 Jena, Germany.
| | - Franziska Schley
- Institute of Sport Science, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07749 Jena, Germany.
| | - Karsten Hollander
- Department of Sports and Exercise Medicine, Institute of Human Movement Science, University of Hamburg, Turmweg 2, 20148 Hamburg, Germany; Department of Sports and Rehabilitation Medicine, BG Trauma Hospital of Hamburg, Bergedorfer Str. 10, 21033 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Astrid Zech
- Institute of Sport Science, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07749 Jena, Germany.
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