The autonomy and focus of attention strategies under distraction: Frequency and sample entropy analyses in a dynamic balance task

Do attentional focus cues affect the type or number of explicit rules? Proof of concepts of the self-invoking trigger or explicit knowledge hypotheses

Internal focus has been shown to be detrimental to performance by disrupting the motor system, whereas external focus enhances performance by promoting automaticity. One hypothesis, which explains the underlying mechanism of the disruption of the motor system, proposes that internal focus affects the type of thoughts (explicit rules) by invoking self-conscious, evaluative thoughts (McKay et al., 2015). In contrast, another hypothesis proposes that internal focus increases the number of explicit rules, loading working memory (Poolton et al., 2006). To examine the competing hypotheses, neurotypical young adults (22.98 ± 4.46 years old, n = 20 males, n = 40 females) were assigned to one of three groups: external focus (n = 20), internal focus (n = 20), and control (n = 20) groups, and practiced a reciprocal aiming task for two days with retention/transfer tests. Between trials, participant's thoughts were evaluated by an open-ended questionnaire. The type of explicit rules was analyzed using a chi-square test, and the number of explicit rules was analyzed using a mixed-effect Poisson regression. The results showed that external focus resulted in a greater proportion of explicit rules about the task and a lesser proportion of self-evaluative thoughts. The number of explicit rules did not differ between groups. Our results suggest that external focus may strengthen focus on task-relevant features, while internal focus moves people's attention away from important features, potentially explaining why the motor system is disrupted by internal focus.

Perceived cognitive fatigue has only marginal effects on static balance control in healthy young adults

We examined the influence of perceived cognitive fatigue on static balance control in healthy young adults to gain greater clarity about this issue than provided in previous research. Based on the prevailing assumption in pertinent literature, we hypothesized that the influence of cognitive fatigue on balance control depends on the attentional effort required by the balance tasks being performed. To test this hypothesis, 44 young adults (24 women and 20 men) were alternately assigned to either the experimental group that was cognitively fatigued (using the 16-min TloadDback-task with individualized settings) or the control group (who watched a documentary). Before and after the intervention, the participants performed six balance tasks that differed in (attentional) control requirements, while recording the center of pressure (COP). From these time series, sway variability, mean speed, and sample entropy were calculated and analyzed statistically. Additionally, perceived cognitive fatigue was assessed using VAS scales. Statistical analyses confirmed that the balance tasks differed in control characteristics and that cognitive fatigue was elevated in the experimental group, but not in the control group. Nevertheless, no significant main effects of cognitive fatigue were found on any of the COP measures of interest, except for some non-robust interaction effects related primarily to sample entropy. These results suggest that, in young adults, postural control in static balance tasks is largely automatic and unaffected by task-induced state fatigue.

Is cognitive control of perception and action via attentional focus moderated by motor imagery?

Motor imagery (MI) has emerged as an individual factor that may modulate the effects of attentional focus on motor skill performance. In this study, we investigated whether global MI, as well as its components (i.e., kinesthetic MI, internal visual MI, and external visual MI) moderate the effect of attentional focus on performance in a group of ninety-two young adult novice air-pistol shooters (age: M = 21.87, SD = 2.54). After completing the movement imagery questionnaire-3 (MIQ-3), participants were asked to complete a pistol shooting experiment in three different attentional focus conditions: (1) No focus instruction condition (control condition with no verbal instruction) (2) an internal focus instruction condition, and (3) an external focus condition. Shot accuracy, performance time, and aiming trace speed (i.e., stability of hold or weapon stability) were measured as the performance variables. Results revealed that shot accuracy was significantly poorer during internal relative to control focus condition. In addition, performance time was significantly higher during external relative to both control and internal condition. However, neither global MI, nor its subscales, moderated the effects of attentional focus on performance. This study supports the importance of attentional focus for perceptual and motor performance, yet global MI and its modalities/perspectives did not moderate pistol shooting performance. This study suggests that perception and action are cognitively controlled by attentional mechanisms, but not motor imagery. Future research with complementary assessment modalities is warranted to extend the present findings.

Practice-Not Task Difficulty-Mediated the Focus of Attention Effect on a Speed-Accuracy Tradeoff Task

External focus (attention to the movement effect) has been found effective in motor performance and learning. However, while some investigators have suggested that the effect of attentional focus varies with task difficulty, others reported external focus benefits regardless of difficulty. We hypothesized that attentional focus effects would vary with practice, due to changes in the individual's processing efficiency. We had three 20-person participant groups (external focus instructions, internal focus instructions, control) practice three difficulty levels of a Fitts reciprocal tapping task over two days. Participants in the external/internal focus groups were instructed to "mentally focus on moving the pen/your hand as fast and accurately as possible," while control participants were instructed to "mentally focus only on doing your best to achieve the task goal." We then analyzed the effect of attentional focus by task difficulty at the initial performance (the beginning of the practice) and after learning (the retention/transfer phase), using movement time (MT) and number of error taps (Err) as performance measures. The internal focus group made more errors than the control group only at the retention/transfer phase. We found no error differences between the external and internal focus groups, and there were no MT differences between any groups. Our primary hypothesis about the differential effect of attentional focus by practice was supported. The attentional focus effect on Err differed in the retention/transfer phase from the immediate phase, suggesting that practice mediated the attentional focus effect. We discuss how information theory may supplement understanding of attentional focus interventions in motor skill acquisition.