Adopting a holistic focus of attention promotes adherence and improves performance in college track and field athletes

The Distance Effect in Focus of Attention: Spatial or Temporal Distance?

Purpose: The benefit of an external focus over an internal focus has been well-established. Within this literature, several studies have documented a distal effect of attentional focus by comparing the efficacy of a proximal and distal external focus. A potential confound is that most distal focus cues direct the performer's attention to an outcome occurring after the completion of movement, while the proximal cues direct attention to something that occurs during the movement process. This study aims to disentangle whether the distal effect of attentional focus comes from spatial distance (proximal vs. distal) or temporal distance (during vs. after). Method: To test this, we employed a two-handed underhand medicine ball throw for maximum distance with 38 healthy young adults. This study employed five conditions: baseline, internal-during, internal-after, external-during, and external-after focus. Results: The result indicated that both external-during and -after foci elicited a significantly greater throwing distance than internal-during (p = .006) and internal-after (p < .001), where internal-after even significantly underperformed than baseline (p = .02). Conclusion: Our findings indicate that using an outcome cue unrelated to the intended action does not enhance motor performance. Rather, the most effective approach is to use an external cue that represents the action effect either during or after the movement.

A Holistic Focus of Attention Enhances Vertical Jump Performance Among Inexperienced Individuals

A holistic focus (HF) has been found to significantly improve performance over an internal focus (IF), in a similar way to an external focus (EF). There is a need to understand the effectiveness of a HF by investigating kinematic and kinetic outcome measures. 19 college-aged adults performed 12 vertical jumps under four conditions in a counterbalanced design. The conditions were, IF, EF, HF, and control, or no focus condition. All participants performed the vertical jumps on a force plate with 16 reflective markers placed on the lower extremities. Separate repeated measures ANOVAs with Sidak post-hoc were used to analyze jump height, flight height, peak force, takeoff velocity, and knee and hip flexion. A significant main effect for jump height was observed (p < 0.001). HF and EF jumped significantly higher than IF (p < 0.001; p < 0.001). EF also jumped significantly higher than control (p<.05). No significant main effects were observed for any kinematic or kinetic dependent variables. The results of this experiment support previous research by observing performance benefits of HF and EF over an IF. However, the benefits of HF and EF cannot be attributed to the kinetic or kinematic changes.

Standing Long Jump Performance Is Enhanced When Using an External as Well as Holistic Focus of Attention: A Kinematic Study

Standing long jump is known as one of the important skills in the success of athletes in most sports. In addition, one of the most effective factors that can affect standing long jump distance and kinematics is the focus of attention used by the athlete. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to compare the effect of internal, external, and holistic focus of attention instructions on standing long jump performance and kinematics. The participants were 30 novices (all males; mean age = 21.70 ± 2.21 years; mean height = 175.73 ± 6.09 cm; and mean weight = 73.76 ± 11.77 kg) who performed 12 standing long jumps in four focus of attention conditions. Internal focus, external focus, holistic focus, and control conditions were implemented in a counterbalanced order. Jump distance and maximum knee flexion angle before take-off were recorded in all trials. The results showed that in relation to the standing long jump performance, the distance was similar in external and holistic focus conditions, and both were superior to internal or control conditions. There was no difference between control and internal focus of attention conditions. The results related to movement kinematics, however, did not report a difference between the maximum flexion angles before take-off. This study replicates the benefits of external and holistic focus instructions for jump distance, but this difference was not a product of different maximum knee flexion angles. It is suggested that coaches implement external and/or holistic focus cues to maximize athlete performance in jumping tasks.

The effect of internal, external, and holistic focus of attention on standing long jump performance in novice and skilled karatekas

An important application for training instructions is found in directing one's attentional focus. This direction can occur in different internal, external, or holistic forms. However, comparison between these three forms of instructions is a relatively recent development rarely reported at different skill levels or various sports including karate. Therefore, the present study attempts to investigate the effects of three forms of instructions on standing long jump performance in skilled and novice karatekas. The participants were 60 skilled and novice karatekas (all females; mean age: 21.32 ± 1.65) who completed 12 standing long jump trials under different focus conditions (3 trials for each condition: internal, external, holistic and control condition) in a counterbalanced order. Our findings suggested significant main effects, indicating that skilled karatekas outperformed the novices. The findings also showed that regardless of skill levels, the participants exhibited similar performance under external and holistic focus conditions while performance in both of these conditions was superior compared to performance under internal focus and control conditions. No difference was observed between the control and internal focus conditions. It seems that skilled and novice karatekas may benefit from holistic and external focus of attention instructions which enhance their motor performance. Thus, it is recommended that coaches should incorporate these two types of attentional focus instructions into their training sessions.

Effects of self-controlled practice and focus of attention on free throw accuracy: Exploring optimal theory among skilled basketball players

Based on the OPTIMAL theory of motor learning (Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016), optimal motor performance and learning will occur through the influence of the two motivational factors of enhanced expectancies and autonomy support (self-controlled practice) as well as the attentional factor of the external focus of attention. Recently, some researchers tested this theory on different motor tasks using novices. However, it seems that this theory has not been tested in skilled athletes. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of self-controlled practice and focus of attention on the accuracy of free throws of skilled basketball players. The participants were 56 skilled adult basketball players (28 men; average age = 27.75 ± 3.31 years; 28 women, average age = 27.18 ± 3.63 years) who were randomly divided into two self-control and yoked groups. Each group performed 80 basketball free throw trials in four different attention conditions (external, internal, holistic, control) as a counterbalance, so that each participant made 20 basketball free throws in each attention condition. The results showed that skilled basketball players in the self-controlled group performed better than the yoked group when they could choose the color of the ball. The results also showed that focusing on external or holistic cues compared to focusing on internal cues improved basketball free throw performance in skilled players. However, the results did not show a difference between external and holistic attention with the control condition. The control condition was also similar to the internal attention condition. In summary, the results of this research could only partially support the OPTIMAL theory and showed that each of the two variables of self-controlled practice and external or holistic focus of attention separately and independently affect the motor performance of skilled basketball players and their additive effect was not observed. It is suggested that coaches try to use autonomy support as well as external or holistic focus of attention in practical situations to improve the motor performance of skilled athletes.

The Effects of Holistic, External, and Internal Attentional Focus Instructions on Power and Kinematics of the Hang Power Snatch in Highly Skilled Weightlifters

Athletes across various sports seek to enhance their power generation and force production by incorporating weightlifting exercises into their training. Therefore, integrating partial weightlifting movements could be sensible due to their simplified execution. Our research aimed to investigate which of four attentional focus strategies (external, internal, holistic, and neutral) would have the greatest impact on performance in terms of power variables for highly experienced weightlifting athletes in a practical training setting. Twelve highly skilled Olympic weightlifters volunteered for the study. They performed 48 single repetitions of the hang power snatch with each of the four attentional focus strategies. Results of the ANOVA did not reveal a significant main effect for maximum velocity, power measurement and displacement. Despite extensive research demonstrating how attentional focus affects performance differently, even among highly skilled populations, the lack of observed effects in our study underscores the challenges of conducting research in applied settings.

Attentional Focus Effects on Lower-Limb Muscular Strength in Athletes: A Systematic Review

ABSTRACT

Pompa, D, Carson, HJ, Beato, M, di Fronso, S, and Bertollo, M. Attentional focus effects on lower-limb muscular strength in athletes: A systematic review. J Strength Cond Res 38(2): 419-434, 2024-Evidence links an athlete's focus of attention to enhancing strength performance. However, additional research is needed to investigate the applicability of studies beyond the tasks and population currently examined. Therefore, we aimed to systematically review studies concerning attentional focus effects on strength characteristics on lower-limb tasks in athletes. Scopus, Web of Science, and EBSCO databases were searched using PRISMA PERSIST guidelines and keywords related to the focus of attention, force production processes, and athletes. Subjects were categorized: world class (tier 5); elite (tier 4); highly trained (tier 3); trained/developmental (tier 2); nonathletes (tiers 1-0); and mixed (different levels). Fifteen of 296 studies met the inclusion criteria. Included studies investigated the focus of attention effects on performance ( n = 6), between skill levels ( n = 2), and for learning ( n = 5), with respect to subject preference ( n = 1); one study did not state the aim. Studies achieved an average risk of bias score of "excellent"; however, findings suffered in the assessment of certainty. Only 2 studies reported an advantage for one type of attentional focus (external focus) across conditions ( g = 0.13-0.42) with tier 2 and mixed tier athletes. Research does not address the needs of elite athletes, and there is limited evidence on each type of strength characteristics and muscle action. There is also a need to incorporate methodological steps to promote task-relevant instructions. Research should focus on contextualized information within professional practice to offer stronger translational implications for athletes and coaches.

Every story has two sides: evaluating information processing and ecological dynamics perspectives of focus of attention in skill acquisition

Directing our focus of attention appropriately during task execution can benefit outcome performance, cognitive efficiency, and physiological efficiency. For instance, individuals may benefit from adopting an external focus of attention (i.e., by focusing attention on the effects of one's movements on the environment) over an internal focus of attention (e.g., focusing on one's body movements). However, accounts concerning the theoretical functioning of such effects have primarily relied on hierarchical information processing perspectives; far less consideration has been given to potentially alternative explanations based on ecological dynamics, instances where an internal focus may be desirable over an external focus, and the associated applied implications. Within the present review, we: (a) outline the most recent developments in attentional focus research; (b) evaluate similarities and differences between information processing and ecological dynamics explanations of the focus of attention effect; (c) provide practical recommendations; and (d) discuss future research avenues. In doing so, a case is made for an "Ecological Dynamics Account of Attentional Focus" to act as an alternative to information processing-based hypotheses.