Purification and characterization of chondroitinase ABC from Acinetobacter sp. C26

Saccharide mapping as an extraordinary method on characterization and identification of plant and fungi polysaccharides: A review

Saccharide mapping was a promising scheme to unveil the mystery of polysaccharide structure by analysis of the fragments generated from polysaccharide decomposition process. However, saccharide mapping was not widely applied in the polysaccharide analysis for lacking of systematic introduction. In this review, a detailed description of the establishment process of saccharide mapping, the pros and cons of downstream technologies, an overview of the application of saccharide mapping, and practical strategies were summarized. With the updating of the available downstream technologies, saccharide mapping had been expanding its scope of application to various kinds of polysaccharides. The process of saccharide mapping analysis included polysaccharides degradation and hydrolysates analysis, and the degradation process was no longer limited to acid hydrolysis. Some downstream technologies were convenient for rapid qualitative analysis, while others could achieve quantitative analysis. For the more detailed structure information could be provided by saccharide mapping, it was possible to improve the quality control of polysaccharides during preparation and application. This review filled the blank of basic information about saccharide mapping and was helpful for the establishment of a professional workflow for the saccharide mapping application to promote the deep study of polysaccharide structure.

The hydrophobic cluster on the surface of protein is the key structural basis for the SDS-resistance of chondroitinase VhChlABC

The application of chondroitinase requires consideration of the complex microenvironment of the target. Our previous research reported a marine-derived sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-resistant chondroitinase VhChlABC. This study further investigated the mechanism of VhChlABC resistance to SDS. Focusing on the hydrophobic cluster on its strong hydrophilic surface, it was found that the reduction of hydrophobicity of surface residues Ala181, Met182, Met183, Ala184, Val185, and Ile305 significantly reduced the SDS resistance and stability. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation and molecular docking analysis showed that I305G had more conformational flexibility around residue 305 than wild type (WT), which was more conducive to SDS insertion and binding. The affinity of A181G, M182A, M183A, V185A and I305G to SDS was significantly higher than that of WT. In conclusion, the surface hydrophobic microenvironment composed of six residues was the structural basis for SDS resistance. This feature could prevent the binding of SDS and the destruction of hydrophobic packaging by increasing the rigid conformation of protein and reducing the binding force of SDS-protein. The study provides a new idea for the rational design of SDS-resistant proteins and may further promote chondroitinase research in the targeted therapy of lung diseases under the pressure of pulmonary surfactant.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42995-023-00201-1.

Chondroitinase as a therapeutic enzyme: Prospects and challenges

The chondroitinases (Chase) are bacterial lyases that specifically digest chondroitin sulfate and/or dermatan sulfate glycosaminoglycans via a β-elimination reaction and generate unsaturated disaccharides. In recent decades, these enzymes have attracted the attention of many researchers due to their potential applications in various aspects of medicine from the treatment of spinal cord injury to use as an analytical tool. In spite of this diverse spectrum, the application of Chase is faced with several limitations and challenges such as thermal instability and lack of a suitable delivery system. In the current review, we address potential therapeutic applications of Chase with emphasis on the challenges ahead. Then, we summarize the latest achievements to overcome the problems by considering the studies carried out in the field of enzyme engineering, drug delivery, and combination-based therapy.

Advances and challenges in biotechnological production of chondroitin sulfate and its oligosaccharides

Chondroitin sulfate (CS) is a member of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and has critical physiological functions. CS is widely applied in medical and clinical fields. Currently, the supply of CS relies on traditional animal tissue extraction methods. From the perspective of medical applications, the biggest drawback of animal-derived CS is its uncontrollable molecular weight and sulfonated patterns, which are key factors affecting CS activities. The advances of cell-free enzyme catalyzed systems and de novo biosynthesis strategies have paved the way to rationally regulate CS sulfonated pattern and molecular weight. In this review, we first present a general overview of biosynthesized CS and its oligosaccharides. Then, the advances in chondroitin biosynthesis, 3'-phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate (PAPS) synthesis and regeneration, and CS biosynthesis catalyzed by sulfotransferases are discussed. Moreover, the progress of mining and expression of chondroitin depolymerizing enzymes for preparation of CS oligosaccharides is also summarized. Finally, we analyze and discuss the challenges faced in synthesizing CS and its oligosaccharides using microbial and enzymatic methods. In summary, the biotechnological production of CS and its oligosaccharides is a promising method in addressing the drawbacks associated with animal-derived CS and enabling the production of CS oligosaccharides with defined structures.

YsHyl8A, an Alkalophilic Cold-Adapted Glycosaminoglycan Lyase Cloned from Pathogenic Yersinia sp. 298

A high enzyme-yield strain Yersinia sp. 298 was screened from marine bacteria harvested from the coastal water. The screening conditions were extensive, utilizing hyaluronic acid (HA)/chondroitin sulfate (CS) as the carbon source. A coding gene yshyl8A of the family 8 polysaccharide lyase (PL8) was cloned from the genome of Yersinia sp. 298 and subjected to recombinant expression. The specific activity of the recombinase YsHyl8A was 11.19 U/mg, with an optimal reaction temperature of 40 °C and 50% of its specific activity remaining after thermal incubation at 30 °C for 1 h. In addition, its optimal reaction pH was 7.5, and while it was most stable at pH 6.0 in Na2HPO4-citric acid buffer, it remained highly stable at pH 6.0–11.0. Further, its enzymatic activity was increased five-fold with 0.1 M NaCl. YsHyl8A, as an endo-lyase, can degrade both HA and CS, producing disaccharide end-products. These properties suggested that YsHyl8A possessed both significant alkalophilic and cold-adapted features while being dependent on NaCl, likely resulting from its marine source. Yersinia is a typical fish pathogen, with glycosaminoglycan lyase (GAG lyase) as a potential pathogenic factor, exhibiting strong hyaluronidase and chondroitinase activity. Further research on the pathogenic mechanism of GAG lyase may benefit the prevention and treatment of related diseases.

A Highly Active Chondroitin Sulfate Lyase ABC for Enzymatic Depolymerization of Chondroitin Sulfate

Enzymatic preparation of low-molecular-weight chondroitin sulfate (LMWCS) has received increasing attention. In this work, a chondroitin sulfate lyase ABC (Chon-ABC) was successfully cloned, expressed, and characterized. The K_m and V_max of the Chon-ABC were 0.54 mM and 541.3 U mg⁻¹, respectively. The maximal activity was assayed as 500.4 U mg⁻¹ at 37 °C in pH 8.0 phosphate buffer saline. The half-lives of the Chon-ABC were 133 d and 127 min at 4 °C and 37 °C, respectively. Enzymatic preparation of LMWCS was performed at room temperature for 30 min. The changes between the substrate and product were analyzed with mass spectrometry (MS), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gel permeation chromatography (GPC), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Overall, the Chon-ABC from Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron is competitive in large-scale enzymatic preparation of LMWCS for its high activity, stability, and substrate specificity.

Identification and Biochemical Characterization of a Surfactant-Tolerant Chondroitinase VhChlABC from Vibrio hyugaensis LWW-1

Chondroitinases, catalyzing the degradation of chondroitin sulfate (CS) into oligosaccharides, not only play a crucial role in understanding the structure and function of CS, but also have been reported as a potential candidate drug for the treatment of high CS-related diseases. Here, a marine bacterium Vibrio hyugaensis LWW-1 was isolated, and its genome was sequenced and annotated. A chondroitinase, VhChlABC, was found to belong to the second subfamily of polysaccharide lyase (PL) family 8. VhChlABC was recombinant expressed and characterized. It could specifically degrade CS-A, CS-B, and CS-C, and reached the maximum activity at pH 7.0 and 40 °C in the presence of 0.25 M NaCl. VhChlABC showed high stability within 8 h under 37 °C and within 2 h under 40 °C. VhChlABC was stable in a wide range of pH (5.0~10.6) at 4 °C. Unlike most chondroitinases, VhChlABC showed high surfactant tolerance, which might provide a good tool for removing extracellular CS proteoglycans (CSPGs) of lung cancer under the stress of pulmonary surfactant. VhChlABC completely degraded CS to disaccharide by the exolytic mode. This research expanded the research and application system of chondroitinases.

Characterization of a Hyaluronic Acid Utilization Locus and Identification of Two Hyaluronate Lyases in a Marine Bacterium Vibrio alginolyticus LWW-9

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a negatively charged and linear polysaccharide existing in the tissues and body fluids of all vertebrates. Some pathogenic bacteria target hyaluronic acid for adhesion and/or infection to host cells. Vibrio alginolyticus is an opportunistic pathogen related to infections of humans and marine animals, and the hyaluronic acid-degrading potential of Vibrio spp. has been well-demonstrated. However, little is known about how Vibrio spp. utilize hyaluronic acid. In this study, a marine bacterium V. alginolyticus LWW-9 capable of degrading hyaluronic acid has been isolated. Genetic and bioinformatic analysis showed that V. alginolyticus LWW-9 harbors a gene cluster involved in the degradation, transport, and metabolism of hyaluronic acid. Two novel PL8 family hyaluronate lyases, VaHly8A and VaHly8B, are the key enzymes for the degradation of hyaluronic acid. VaHly8A and VaHly8B have distinct biochemical properties, reflecting the adaptation of the strain to the changing parameters of the aquatic habitats and hosts. Based on genomic and functional analysis, we propose a model for the complete degradation of hyaluronic acid by V. alginolyticus LWW-9. Overall, our study expands our knowledge of the HA utilization paradigm within the Proteobacteria, and the two novel hyaluronate lyases are excellent candidates for industrial applications.

Research and Application of Chondroitin Sulfate/Dermatan Sulfate-Degrading Enzymes

Chondroitin sulfate (CS) and dermatan sulfate (DS) are widely distributed on the cell surface and in the extracellular matrix in the form of proteoglycan, where they participate in various biological processes. The diverse functions of CS/DS can be mainly attributed to their high structural variability. However, their structural complexity creates a big challenge for structural and functional studies of CS/DS. CS/DS-degrading enzymes with different specific activities are irreplaceable tools that could be used to solve this problem. Depending on the site of action, CS/DS-degrading enzymes can be classified as glycosidic bond-cleaving enzymes and sulfatases from animals and microorganisms. As discussed in this review, a few of the identified enzymes, particularly those from bacteria, have wildly applied to the basic studies and applications of CS/DS, such as disaccharide composition analysis, the preparation of bioactive oligosaccharides, oligosaccharide sequencing, and potential medical application, but these do not fulfill all of the needs in terms of the structural complexity of CS/DS.

Cloning and characterization of two chondroitin sulfate ABC lyases from Edwardsiella tarda LMG2793

Chondroitinase ABC can be used to prepare chondroitin sulfate (CS) oligosaccharides efficiently and environmentally. It also promotes nerve recovery through enzymatic degradation of glycosaminoglycan chains in damaged nerve tissue. In this study, two new chondroitin sulfate ABC lyases were expressed and characterized from Edwardsiella tarda LMG2793, with molecular weight of 116.8 kDa and 115.9 kDa, respectively. Two lyases ChABC I and ChABC II belonged to the polysaccharide lyase (PL) family 8. ChABC I and ChABC II showed enzyme activity towards chondroitin sulfate A (CS-A), CS-B, CS-C and CS-D, but had no activity towards hyaluronan (HA). The optimal temperature for ChABC I to exhibit the highest activity against CS-A was 40 °C and the optimal pH was 7.0. ChABC II showed the highest activity to CS-A at optimal temperature of 40 °C and pH of 9.0. ChABC I and ChABC II were stable at 37 °C and remained about 90 % of activity after incubation at 37 °C for 3 h. Many metal ions had no effect on the activity of ChABC I and ChABC II. These properties were beneficial to their further basic research and application. ChABC I was an endo-type enzyme while ChABC II was an exo-type enzyme. A group of amino acids were selected for further study by evaluating the sequence homology with other CS degradation lyases. Mutagenesis studies speculated that the catalytic residues in ChABC I were His⁵²², Tyr⁵²⁹ and Arg⁵⁸¹. The catalytic residues of ChABC II were His⁴⁹⁸, Tyr⁵⁰⁵ and Arg⁵⁵⁸. This work will contribute to the structural and functional characterization of biomedically relevant CS and promote the application of CS lyase in further basic research and therapeutics.

Identification and biochemical characterization of a novel chondroitin sulfate/dermantan sulfate lyase from Photobacterium sp

Chondroitin sulfate (CS)/dermatan sulfate (DS) lyases play important roles in structural and functional studies of CS/DS. In this study, a novel CS/DS lyase (enCSase) was identified from the genome of the marine bacterium Photobacterium sp. QA16. This enzyme is easily heterologously expressed and purified as highly active form against various CS, DS and hyaluronic acid (HA). Under the optimal conditions, the specific activities of this enzyme towards CSA, CSC, CSD, CSE, DS and HA were 373, 474, 171, 172, 141 and 97 U/mg of proteins, respectively. As an endolytic enzyme, enCSase degrades HA to unsaturated hexa- and tetrasaccharides but CS/DS to unsaturated tetra- and disaccharides as the final products. Sequencing analysis showed that the structures of tetrasaccharides in the final products of CS variants were not unique but were highly variable, indicating the randomness of substrate degradation by this enzyme. Further studies showed that the smallest substrate of enCSase was octasaccharide for HA but hexasaccharide for CS/DS, which could explain why this enzyme cannot degrade HA hexa- and tetrasaccharides and CS/DS tetrasaccharides further. It is believed that enCSase may be a very useful tool for structural and functional studies and related applications of CS/DS and HA.

Cloning and characterization of a novel chondroitinase ABC categorized into a new subfamily of polysaccharide lyase family 8

Chondroitinases degrade chondroitin sulfate (CS) into oligosaccharides, of which the biological activities have vital roles in various fields. Some chondroitinases in polysaccharide lyase family 8 (PL8) have been classified into four subfamilies (PL8_1, PL8_2, PL8_3, and PL8_4) based on their sequence similarity and substrate specificities. In this study, a gene, vpa_0049, was cloned from marine bacterium Vibrio sp. QY108. The encoded protein, Vpa_0049, did not belong to the four existing subfamilies in PL8 based on phylogenetic analysis. Vpa_0049 could degrade various glycosaminoglycans (CS-A, CS-B, CS-C, CS-D, and HA) into unsaturated disaccharides in an endolytic manner, which was different from PL8 lyases of four existing subfamilies. The maximum activity of Vpa_0049 on different glycosaminoglycan substrates appeared at 30-37 °C and pH 7.0-8.0 in the presence of NaCl. Vpa_0049 showed approximately 50% of maximum activity towards CS-B and HA at 0 °C. It was stable in alkaline conditions (pH 8.0-10.6) and 0-30 °C. Our study provides a new broad-substrate chondroitinase and presents an in-depth understanding of PL8.

Purification and Characterization of a Novel Endolytic Alginate Lyase from Microbulbifer sp. SH-1 and Its Agricultural Application

Alginate, an important acidic polysaccharide in marine multicellular algae, has attracted attention as a promising biomass resource for the production of medical and agricultural chemicals. Alginate lyase is critical for saccharification and utilization of alginate. Discovering appropriate and efficient enzymes for depolymerizing alginate into fermentable fractions plays a vital role in alginate commercial exploitation. Herein, a unique alginate lyase, AlgSH7, belonging to polysaccharide lyase 7 family is purified and characterized from an alginate-utilizing bacterium Microbulbifer sp. SH-1. The purified AlgSH7 shows a specific activity of 12,908.26 U/mg, and its molecular weight is approximately 66.4 kDa. The optimal temperature and pH of AlgSH7 are 40 °C and pH 9.0, respectively. The enzyme exhibits stability at temperatures below 30 °C and within an extensive pH range of 5.0-9.0. Metal ions including Na⁺, K⁺, Al³⁺, and Fe³⁺ considerably enhance the activity of the enzyme. AlgSH7 displays a preference for poly-mannuronic acid (polyM) and a very low activity towards poly-guluronic acid (polyG). TLC and ESI-MS analysis indicated that the enzymatic hydrolysates mainly include disaccharides, trisaccharides, and tetrasaccharides. Noteworthy, the alginate oligosaccharides (AOS) prepared by AlgSH7 have an eliciting activity against chilling stress in Chinese flowering cabbage (Brassica parachinensis L.). These results suggest that AlgSH7 has a great potential to design an effective process for the production of alginate oligomers for agricultural applications.

Cloning, Expression, and Characterization of a New Glycosaminoglycan Lyase from Microbacterium sp. H14

Glycosaminoglycan (GAG) lyase is an effective tool for the structural and functional studies of glycosaminoglycans and preparation of functional oligosaccharides. A new GAG lyase from Microbacterium sp. H14 was cloned, expressed, purified, and characterized, with a molecular weight of approximately 85.9 kDa. The deduced lyase HCLaseM belonged to the polysaccharide lyase (PL) family 8. Based on the phylogenetic tree, HCLaseM could not be classified into the existing three subfamilies of this family. HCLaseM showed almost the same enzyme activity towards hyaluronan (HA), chondroitin sulfate A (CS-A), CS-B, CS-C, and CS-D, which was different from reported GAG lyases. HCLaseM exhibited the highest activities to both HA and CS-A at its optimal temperature (35 °C) and pH (pH 7.0). HCLaseM was stable in the range of pH 5.0–8.0 and temperature below 30 °C. The enzyme activity was independent of divalent metal ions and was not obviously affected by most metal ions. HCLaseM is an endo-type enzyme yielding unsaturated disaccharides as the end products. The facilitated diffusion effect of HCLaseM is dose-dependent in animal experiments. These properties make it a candidate for further basic research and application.

Chondroitin Sulfate-Degrading Enzymes as Tools for the Development of New Pharmaceuticals

Chondroitin sulfates are linear anionic sulfated polysaccharides found in biological tissues, mainly within the extracellular matrix, which are degraded and altered by specific lyases depending on specific time points. These polysaccharides have recently acquired relevance in the pharmaceutical industry due to their interesting therapeutic applications. As a consequence, chondroitin sulfate (CS) lyases have been widely investigated as tools for the development of new pharmaceuticals based on these polysaccharides. This review focuses on the major breakthrough represented by chondroitin sulfate-degrading enzymes and their structures and mechanisms of function in addition to their major applications.

Expression, Purification and Characterization of Chondroitinase AC II from Marine Bacterium Arthrobacter sp. CS01

Chondroitinase (ChSase), a type of glycosaminoglycan (GAG) lyase, can degrade chondroitin sulfate (CS) to unsaturate oligosaccharides, with various functional activities. In this study, ChSase AC II from a newly isolated marine bacterium Arthrobacter sp. CS01 was cloned, expressed in Pichia pastoris X33, purified, and characterized. ChSase AC II, with a molecular weight of approximately 100 kDa and a specific activity of 18.7 U/mg, showed the highest activity at 37 °C and pH 6.5 and maintained stability at a broad range of pH (5–7.5) and temperature (below 35 °C). The enzyme activity was increased in the presence of Mn²⁺ and was strongly inhibited by Hg²⁺. Moreover, the kinetic parameters of ChSase AC II against CS-A, CS-C, and HA were determined. TLC and ESI-MS analysis of the degradation products indicated that ChSase AC II displayed an exolytic action mode and completely hydrolyzed three substrates into oligosaccharides with low degrees of polymerization (DPs). All these features make ChSase AC II a promising candidate for the full use of GAG to produce oligosaccharides.

Purification, characterization of Chondroitinase ABC from Sphingomonas paucimobilis and in vitro cardiocytoprotection of the enzymatically degraded CS-A

An extracellular chondroitinase ABC (ChSase ABC) produced by Sphingomonas paucimobilis was purified to homogeneity through ammonium sulfate precipitation, DEAE-Sepharose Fast Flow and Sephadex G-100 chromatography. The molecular weight was 82.3 kDa. It showed specific lyase activity toward chondroitin sulfate A (CS-A), CS-B, CS-C and hyaluronan (HA). Using CS-A as substrate, the specific activity was 98.04 U/mg, the maximal reaction rate (V_max) and Michaelis-Menten constant (K_m) were 0.49 μmol/min/ml and 0.79 mg/ml, respectively. Highest activity was obtained at pH 6.5 and 40 °C, and Hg²⁺ could strongly inhibit the enzyme activity. Mass spectrometry analysis indicated CS-A was degraded to unsaturated disaccharides by ChSase ABC. In vitro cytotoxic tests showed that CS-A oligosaccharide at the concentration of 50 and 100 μg/ml could promote the proliferation of normal H9c2 myocardial cells, decrease the damage induced by isoproterenol (ISO) and accelerate the recovery of cells injured by ISO. These findings suggested that ChSase ABC from Sphingomonas paucimobilis could be a promising tool for the structural analysis and bioactive oligosaccharide preparation of glucosaminoglycans.