Investigation of using pectin and chitosan as natural excipients in pellet formulation

Quality aspects in the development of pelletized dosage forms

The aim of this work was to identify and collate the major common challenges that arise during pellet development. These challenges focus on aspects right from raw material properties until the final drying process of the pelletization. The challenges associated with the particle size of drug and excipients, physicochemical properties, drug excipient interaction and the effect of type/grade and amount of raw material on the pellet properties are covered in this review. Technological and process related challenges within the commonly used pelletization techniques such as extrusion-spheronization, hot-melt extrusion and layering techniques are also emphasized. The paper likewise gives an insight to the possible ways of addressing the quality of pellets during development.

Natural carbohydrate-based thermosensitive chitosan/pectin adsorbent for removal of Pb(II) from aqueous solutions

Biodegradable and eco-friendly adsorbents composed of natural carbohydrates have been used to replace carbon-based materials. This study presents a natural carbohydrate-based chitosan/pectin (CS/Pec) hydrogel adsorbent to remove Pb(II) from aqueous solutions. The physical CS/Pec hydrogel was prepared by blending aqueous CS and Pec solutions at 65 °C, preventing the use of toxic chemistries (crosslinking agents). The thermosensitive CS/Pec hydrogel was quickly created by cooling CS/Pec blend at room temperature. The used strategy created stable CS/Pec hydrogel against disintegration and water dissolution. The as-prepared hydrogel was characterized by infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The adsorbent had 1.688 mmol -COO^- for each gram. These ionized sites bind Pb(II) ions, promoting their adsorption. The adsorption kinetic and equilibrium studies indicated that the Elovich and pseudo-second-order models adjusted well to the experimental data, respectively. The maximum removal capacities (q_m) predicted by the Langmuir and Sips isotherms achieved 108.2 and 97.55 mg/g at 0.83 g/L adsorbent dosage (pH 4.0). The hydrogel/Pb(II) pair was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray dispersive energy (EDS), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The chemisorption seems to play an essential role in the Pb(II) adsorption. Therefore, the adsorbent was not recovered, showing low potential for reusability.

A Comprehensive Review on Pellets as a Dosage Form in Pharmaceuticals

Oral route of administration is widely accepted and desired because of its versatility, convenience, and, most importantly, patient compliance. Multiparticulate systems like granules and pellets are more advantageous when compared to single-unit dosage forms, as they are capable of distributing the drug more evenly in the gastrointestinal tract. The current paper focuses on pellets, the merits and demerits associated, various pelletization techniques, and their characterization. It also focuses on how pellets can be employed for drug delivery is controlled and sustained release formulations. It gives a complete emphasis on the drug and excipients that can be used in pellet formation, the marketed formulations, and the research pertaining to pellets.

Bovine serum albumin/chitosan-nanoparticle bio-complex; spectroscopic study and in vivo toxicological - Hypersensitivity evaluation

This study, investigates the interaction of bovine serum albumin (BSA) with synthesized chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs) using steady-state fluorescence and UV-vis absorbance spectroscopy as well as picosecond time-resolved fluorescence technique. The fluorescence quenching mechanism of BSA by CSNPs indicates the presence of both static and dynamic mechanism. The loading efficiency of BSA-CSNPs exhibited a decrease by about 6% in neutral pH under physiological temperature. Transmission electron microcopy (TEM) images revealed the Synthesized CSNPs were irregular in shape with size of ~42 nm. The safety and biocompatibility of BSA-CSNPs inside the body was investigated after intraperitoneal (IP) injection of male mice for nine days, analysis of in vivo results, revealed no toxicity with a hypocholesterolemic effect and a predicted mild activation of WBCs due to CSNPs adjuvant and immunogenic peptides in BSA. Accordingly, no signs of hypersensitivity were observed due to the administration of such formulations. The results can be used for a better understanding the interaction of CSNPs within biological protein environment.

Self-assembled lecithin-chitosan nanoparticles improve the oral bioavailability and alter the pharmacokinetics of raloxifene

In this study, we report the development and evaluation of soy lecithin-chitosan hybrid nanoparticles to improve the oral bioavailability of raloxifene hydrochloride. The nanoparticles were formed by interaction of negatively charged soy lecithin with positively charged chitosan. The ratio of soy lecithin to chitosan was critical for the charge, and hence the size of the nanoparticles. The optimal soy lecithin to chitosan ratio was 20:1 to obtain nanoparticles with particle size of 208 ± 3 nm, a ζ-potential of 36 ± 2 mV and an entrapment efficiency of 73 ± 3%. The nanoparticles were also characterized by differential scanning calorimetry and FT-IR spectrophotometer. In-vitro drug release was assessed using dialysis bag method in pH 7.4 buffer. The drug loaded nanoparticles did not cause significant reduction in the cell viability at low doses. Pharmacokinetic studies in female Wistar rats showed significant improvement (~4.2 folds) in the oral bioavailability of the drug when loaded into nanoparticles. Further, the modified everted gut sac study showed that these nanoparticles are taken up by active endocytic processes in the intestine. The ex-vivo mucoadhesion studies proved that the nanoparticles get bound to the mucus layer of the intestine, which in turn correlates with reduced excretion of the drug in faeces. In conclusion, the proposed nanoparticles appear promising for effective oral delivery of poorly bioavailable drugs like raloxifene hydrochloride.

Solid Dispersion Pellets: An Efficient Pharmaceutical Approach to Enrich the Solubility and Dissolution Rate of Deferasirox

Deferasirox (DFX) is an oral iron-chelating agent and classified into class II of the Biopharmaceutics Classification System. Low bioavailability of the drug due to insufficient solubility in physiological fluids is the main drawback of DFX. The idea of the current study was to explore the potential of solid dispersion (SD) as an effective method to improve the dissolution rate of DFX in pellets. The SDs were made by the solvent evaporation technique using polyethylene glycol 4000 (PEG 4000) and polyvinylpyrrolidone K25 with different drug-to-carrier ratios. Then, the dispersion was milled and mixed with other components and the mixture layered on sugar-based cores by pan coating technique. The pellets were evaluated in terms of size distribution, morphology (SEM), and dissolution behaviour. Drug-polymer interactions were studied using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction study (XRD), and Fourier transformation infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The pellets coated with SD showed a remarkable rise in the solubility of DFX than that of free drug-loaded pellets. The dispersion with PVP K25 showed a faster dissolution rate as compared to other mixtures. The DSC and XRD analysis indicated that the drug was in the amorphous state when dispersed in the polymer. The FTIR studies demonstrated any ruled out interaction between drug and polymer. The SEM showed smoothness on the surface of the pellets. It is resolved that the SD method considerably enriched the dissolution rate of DFX in pellets, which can also be utilized for other poorly water-soluble drugs.

Pectin polymers for colon-targeted antitumor drug delivery

The use of chemotherapeutic drugs in the treatment of malignant tumors is always associated with the severe side effects negatively affecting all organs and systems in human body. One of the approaches for reduction of the toxic influence and enhancement of the antitumor drug administration efficiency is supposed to be the use of the biopolymer delivery systems. Pectins are considered the most promising components for colon targeted drug dosage forms as they are stable in the changing gastrointestinal media and easily degraded by pectinases produced by colonic microflora. A various range of the pectin-containing delivery systems were developed contributing higher concentration of the active drug molecules in particular site inside intestine and their lower blood level resulting in lowered risk of the severe side effects. This review discusses the various forms of the pectin-based materials such as hydrogels, tablets and pellets, films, microspheres, microsponges, nanoparticles, etc. as drug delivery device and attempted to report the vast literature available on pectin biopolymers in drug delivery applications.

Modulation of the Release of a Non-Interacting Low Solubility Drug from Chitosan Pellets Using Different Pellet Size, Composition and Numerical Optimization

Two size classes of piroxicam (PXC) pellets (mini (380–550 μm) and conventional (700–1200 μm)) were prepared using extrusion/spheronization and medium viscosity chitosan (CHS). Mixture experimental design and numerical optimization were applied to distinguish formulations producing high sphericity pellets with fast or extended release. High CHS content required greater wetting liquid volume for pellet formation and the diameter decreased linearly with volume. Sphericity increased with CHS for low-to-medium drug content. Application of PXRD showed that the drug was a mixture of form II and I. Crystallinity decreased due to processing and was significant at 5% drug content. Raman spectroscopy showed no interactions. At pH 1.2, the dissolved CHS increased ‘apparent’ drug solubility up to 0.24 mg/mL while, at pH 5.6, the suspended CHS increased ‘apparent’ solubility to 0.16 mg/mL. Release at pH 1.2 was fast for formulations with intermediate CHS and drug levels. At pH 5.6, conventional pellets showed incomplete release while mini pellets with a CHS/drug ratio ≥2 and up to 21.25% drug, showed an extended release that was completed within 8 h. Numerical optimization provided optimal formulations for fast release at pH 1.2 with drug levels up to 40% as well as for extended release formulations with drug levels of 5% and 10%. The Weibull model described the release kinetics indicating complex or combined release (parameter ‘b’ > 0.75) for release at pH 1.2, and normal diffusion for the mini pellets at pH 5.6 (‘b’ from 0.63 to 0.73). The above results were attributed mainly to the different pellet sizes and the extensive dissolution/erosion of the gel matrix was observed at pH 1.2 but not at pH 5.6.