Improved emulsion stability and resveratrol encapsulation by whey protein/gum arabic interaction at oil-water interface

Recent advances in encapsulation of resveratrol for enhanced delivery

Due to its numerous biological activities, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, anti-atherosclerosis, anti-aging, anti-osteoporosis, anti-obesity, estrogenic, neuroprotective and cardioprotective effects, resveratrol has attracted a lot of attention in the food and pharmaceutical industries as a promising bioactive. However, low solubility in aqueous media, limited bioavailability, and low stability of resveratrol in hostile environments limit its applications. The necessity for a summary of recent developments is highlighted by the growing body of research on resveratrol encapsulation as a means of overcoming the mentioned application constraints. This review highlights the present developments in resveratrol delivery techniques, including spray drying, liposomes, emulsions, and nanoencapsulation. Bioaccessibility, bioavailability, stability, and release of resveratrol from encapsulating matrices are discussed. Future research should focus on encapsulation approaches with high loading capacity, targeted delivery, and controlled release. In light of the growing interest in resveratrol and the increasing complexity of resveratrol-based formulations, review of current encapsulation methods is crucial to address existing limitations and pave the way for the development of next-generation delivery systems. This review discusses how the delivery systems with different structures and release mechanisms can unlock the full potential and benefits of resveratrol by enhancing its bioavailability and stability.

Physicochemical, structural, and in-vitro release properties of carboxymethyl cellulose-based cryogel beads incorporating resveratrol-loaded microparticles for colon-targeted delivery system

The objective of this study was to investigate the physicochemical, structural, and in vitro release properties of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)-based cryogel beads incorporating resveratrol-loaded microparticles (MP) for colon-targeted delivery system. CMC-based cryogel beads were produced by ionic cross-linking with different concentrations (2%, 3%, and 4%) of AlCl3. Based on FE-SEM images, CMC-based cryogel beads showed a smoother surface and more compact internal structure with increasing AlCl3 concentrations, which was proven to be due to the new cross-linking between the -COO- group of CMC and Al3+ by FT-IR analysis. The encapsulation efficiency of the cryogel beads was significantly increased from 79.48% to 85.74% by elevating the concentrations of AlCl3 from 2% to 4%, respectively. In vitro release study showed that all CMC-based cryogel beads had higher stability for resveratrol than MP in simulated gastric conditions and can efficiently deliver resveratrol to colon without the premature release.

High internal phase emulsion stabilized by soy protein isolate-Rutin complex: Rheological properties, bioaccessibility and in vitro release kinetics

High internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) are promising carrier materials for encapsulating and delivering hydrophobic bioactive compounds. By strategically adjusting the composition, particle size, or charge of HIPEs, it is possible to enhance both their stability and the bioaccessibility of hydrophobic polyphenols encapsulated within them. In this study, different soy protein isolate (SPI)-rutin (SPI-R) complexes (formed under various preheating temperatures) were used to stabilize HIPEs, while the particle size, and charge of HIPEs was further adjusted through different homogenization rates. The results demonstrated that an optimal preheating temperature of 70 °C for the complex and a homogenization rate of 15,000 rpm for HIPEs enhanced the stability of the entire emulsion system by producing more uniform and smaller droplet distribution with improved rheological properties. Furthermore, in vitro digestion experiments showed that HIPEs stabilized by the SPI-R complexes (HSR) at optimal homogenization rate had better loading efficiency (98.68 %) and bioaccessibility compared to other groups. Additionally, fitting results from release kinetics confirmed that rutin encapsulated by HSR could achieve sustained release effect. Overall, these findings suggest that HSR has great potential as an effective vehicle for delivering hydrophobic bioactive compounds like rutin within the food industry.

Goose liver protein emulsion with enhanced interfacial stabilization by facile core-shell curcumin complexation

The role of facile curcumin dispersion and its hydrophobic complexation onto GLP, in the form of shell (GLPC-E), core (GLPE-C) and with synergy (GLP-ECE), on the protein interfacial and emulsion stabilization was investigated. Turbiscan instability index, microrheological elasticity, viscosity and solid-liquid balance values showed that the O/W emulsion stability was in the order of GLP-E < GLPC-E < GLPE-C < GLP-ECE. GLP-ECE also gave the most reduced D [4, 3] (8.11 ± 0.14 μm) with lowest indexes of flocculation (2.80 ± 0.05 %) and coalescence (2.83 ± 0.10 %) at day 5. Interfacial shear rheology suggested the GLP-curcumin complexation fortified the GLP interfacial gelling and then the efficiency as steric stabilizer, especially of core-shell complexation (14.2 mN/m) that showed the most sufficient in-plane protein interaction against strain. Dilatational elasticity and desorption observation revealed the synergistic curcumin complexation facilitated GLP unfolding and macromolecular association at O/W interface, as was also verified from SEM image and surface hydrophobicity (from 36.23 to 76.04). Overall, this study firstly reported the facile curcumin bi-physic dispersion and GLP complexation in improving the emulsion stabilizing efficiency of the protein by advancing its interfacial stabilization.

Enhancing the stability of O/W emulsions by the interactions of casein/carboxymethyl chitosan and its application in whole nutrient emulsions

The influence of Carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) on the emulsification stability mechanism of casein (CN) and its effects on the stability of whole nutrient emulsions were investigated. The complex solutions of CN and CMCS were prepared and the turbidity, ultraviolet (UV) absorption spectrum, fluorescence spectrum, circular dichroism (CD) spectrum, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrum, interfacial tension and microstructural observations were used to study the inter-molecular interaction of CMCS and CN. The effects of CMCS on the emulsion stability of CN were further analyzed by particle size, ζ-potential, instability index and rheological properties. Moreover, the accelerated stability of whole nutrient emulsions prepared by CMCS and CN was evaluated. The results revealed that CN-CMCS complexes were mainly formed by hydrogen bonding. The stability of the CN-CMCS composite emulsions were improved, as evidenced by the interfacial tension decreasing from 165.96 mN/m to 158.49 mN/m, the particle size decreasing from 45.85 μm to 12.98 μm, and the absolute value of the potential increasing from 29.8 mV to 33.5 mV. The stability of whole nutrient emulsion was also significantly enhanced by the addition of CN-CMCS complexes. Therefore, CN-CMCS complex could be served as a novel emulsifier to improve the stability of O/W emulsions.

Formation and non-covalent interactions of binary and ternary complexes based on β-casein, Lentinus edodes mycelia polysaccharide, and taxifolin

Polyphenols, polysaccharides, and proteins are essential nutrients and functional substances present in food, and when present together these components often interact with each other to influence their structure and function. Proteins and polysaccharides are also excellent carrier materials for polyphenols. In this context, this study investigated the non-covalent interactions between taxifolin (TAX), Lentinus edodes mycelia polysaccharide (LMP), and β-casein (β-CN). β-CN and LMP spontaneously formed nanocomplexes by hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces. The quenching constant and binding constant were (1.94 ± 0.02) × 1013 L mol-1 s-1 and (3.22 ± 0.17) × 105 L mol-1 at 298 K, respectively. The altered conformation of β-CN, resulting from the binding to LMP, affected the interaction with TAX. LMP significantly enhanced the binding affinity of TAX and β-CN, but did not change the static quenching binding mode. The binding constant for β-CN-TAX was (3.96 ± 0.09) × 1013 L mol-1, and that for the interaction between TAX and β-CN-LMP was (32.06 ± 0.05) × 1013 L mol-1. In summary, β-CN-LMP nanocomplexes have great potential as a nanocarrier for polyphenols, and this study provides a theoretical foundation for the rational design of non-covalent complexes involving LMP and β-CN, both in binary and ternary configurations.

Preparation and characterization of sodium caseinate-apricot tree gum/gum Arabic nanocomplex for encapsulation of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)

Nanocomplexes (NCs) were formed through electrostatic complexation theory using Na-caseinate (NaCa), gum Arabic (GA), and Prunus armeniaca L. gum exudates (PAGE), aimed to encapsulate Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). Encapsulation was optimized using NaCa (0.1 %-0.5 %), GA/PAGE (0.1 %-0.9 %) and CLA (1 %-5 %), and central composite design (CCD) was employed for numerical optimization. The optimum conditions for NC containing GA (NCGA) were 0.336 %, 0.437 %, and 3.10 % and for NC containing PAGE (NCPAGE) were 0.403 %, 0.730 %, and 4.177 %, of NaCa, GA/PAGE, and CLA, respectively. EE and particle size were 92.46 % and 52.89 nm for NCGA while 88.23 % and 54.76 nm for NCPAGE, respectively. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) indicated that CLA was physically entrapped. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) confirmed the electrostatic complex formation. The elastic modulus was predominant for NCGA and NCPAGE dispersions while the complex viscosity of NCPAGE suspension was slightly higher than that of NCGA. The CLA in NCGA-CLA and NCPAGE-CLA exhibited higher oxidative stability than free CLA during 30 days of storage without a significant difference between the results of CLA oxidative stability tests obtained for NCs. Consequently, NCPAGE and NCGA could be applied for the entrapment and protection of nutraceuticals in the food industry.

Xanthan and gum acacia modified olive oil based nanoemulsion as a controlled delivery vehicle for topical formulations

In this study, olive oil nanoemulsion modified with xanthan gum and gum acacia was explored as a potential controlled topical delivery vehicle. Oil-in-water nanoemulsion formulated with optimized composition of olive oil, tween 80, and water was used as the drug carrier and further modified with gum. Effect of gum on nanoemulsion different physiochemical characteristics, stability, rheology, drug release and encapsulation efficiency were investigated. Results showed that developed nanoemulsion behaved as low viscosity Newtonian fluid and released 100 % drug within 6 h. Modification with xanthan and gum acacia had significantly improved formulation viscosity, drug encapsulation efficiency (>85 %) and controlled drug release up to 40 % with release pattern following Korsmeyer-Peppas model. Additionally, xanthan gum modified formulation exhibited shear thinning rheology by forming an extended network in the continuous phase, whereas gum acacia modified formulation behaved as Newtonian fluid at high shear rate (>200 s-1). Furthermore, xanthan gum modified formulations had improved zeta potential, stability, monodispersity, and hemocompatibility and showed high antibacterial activity against S. aureus than gum acacia modified formulations. These results indicate the higher potential of xanthan gum modified formulation as a topical delivery vehicle. Moreover, skin irritation test demonstrated the safety of developed formulations for topical application.

The Stability, Rheological Properties and Interfacial Properties of Oil-in-Water (O/W) Emulsions Prepared from Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD) Cold Plasma-Treated Chickpea Protein Isolate and Myofibrillar Protein Complexes

In order to increase the development and utilization of chickpea protein isolate (CPI) and improve the stability of myofibrillar protein (MP) emulsions, the effect of dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma-modified CPI on the emulsifying properties of MP was investigated. Three different O/W emulsions were prepared using MP, MP + CPI complex, or MP + DBD-treated CPI complex as the emulsifier. Compared with the emulsion prepared from MP, the emulsifying activity index and stability of DBD-treated CPI and MP complex (MP + CPIDBD) were increased (p < 0.05) from 55.17 m2/g to 74.99 m2/g and 66.31% to 99.87%, respectively. MP + CPIDBD produced more stable emulsions with the lowest Turbiscan stability index (TSI) values for a given 3600 s. At shear rates from 0 to 1000-1, MP + CPIDBD-stabilized emulsions had higher viscosities, which helped to reduce the chance of aggregation between oil droplets. The optical microscope and particle size distribution of emulsions showed that MP + CPIDBD emulsions had the lowest droplet size (d4,3) and exhibited more uniform distribution. MP + CPIDBD emulsions had lower interfacial tension. DBD pretreatment increased the adsorbed protein content in the emulsion stabilized by MP + CPIDBD as compared to the MP + CPI complex and promoted the adsorption of CPI by higher ratios of adsorbed proteins as indicated by its intensity in SDS-PAGE. Scanning electron microscopy confirmed that the emulsion prepared from MP + CPIDBD had smaller particle size and more uniform dispersion. Therefore, using DBD-modified CPI could enhance the stability of MP emulsions.

Enhancing Antioxidant Retention through Varied Wall Material Combinations in Grape Spray Drying and Storage

The encapsulation of bioactive compounds, which spans phytochemicals, vitamins, antioxidants, and other precious substances, has risen to prominence as a crucial area of interest spanning various domains, including food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. This investigation delved into the efficacy of distinct wall materials-whey protein isolate, high methoxy pectin, and gum arabic-when employed individually or in combination to encapsulate and preserve phenolic compounds and antioxidants during storage. The encapsulation process involved spray-drying bioactive compounds extracted from grapes. Over a span of 120 days, the stability of these encapsulated compounds was meticulously evaluated, encompassing assessments via different antioxidant capacity assays, phenolic content analyses, and high-performance liquid chromatography measurements. The modeling of retention kinetics during storage facilitated the comprehension of the release mechanisms. Notably, the findings underscore the pivotal role of wall materials in preserving these bioactive compounds, with each material or combination of materials exhibiting varying degrees of protective capacity. Remarkably, the synergistic blend of whey protein, pectin, and gum arabic showcased the utmost retention of bioactive compounds over this study's period. The amassed data distinctly show that an amalgamation of wall materials can indeed considerably enhance the stability of encapsulated bioactive compounds, presenting promising applications within the realms of both the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Improved antioxidant properties of pork patties by replacing fat with resveratrol-loaded MP-CS complex stabilized pickering emulsion

The characterization and antioxidant ability of Res-loaded MP-CS stabilized Pickering emulsion, and its effects of fat reduction (25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) in meat patties on pH, color, texture, cooking yield and antioxidant activity were investigated. Fat substitute using emulsion had no significant effect on pH and cooking yield. The addition of emulsion increased L* value and reduced a* value. a* value of meat patties with resveratrol added were higher than those without resveratrol group. Hardness and chewiness of meat patties with 25% and 100% fat replacement was lower than 50% and 75% fat replacement. The addition of emulsion could improve the network structure of meat patties and enhance oxidative stability. Oxidative stability of meat patties was improved by Res-loaded MP-CS stabilized Pickering emulsion. The results showed that MP-CS stabilized Pickering emulsion had great potential to be used as fat substitute for developing low-fat meat products, and the addition of resveratrol can improve the antioxidant ability of substitute fat meat products.

Characteristics and in vitro digestion of resveratrol encapsulated in Pickering emulsions stabilized by tea water-insoluble protein nanoparticles

This study focused on the characteristics and in vitro digestion of resveratrol encapsulated in Pickering emulsions stabilized by tea water-insoluble protein nanoparticles (TWINs). The absolute value of zeta potential of Pickering emulsions stabilized by TWIPNs (TWIPNPEs) encapsulating resveratrol was above 40 mV. Resveratrol encapsulated in TWIPNPEs was located at a hydrophobic environment of emulsion droplets. Additionally, the encapsulation efficiency (EE) of TWIPNPEs at TWIPN concentrations of 3.0% and 4.0% was above 85%. The resveratrol encapsulated in TWIPNPEs at a TWIPN concentration of 4.0% was still greater than 80% after UV irradiation to reduce the susceptibility of resveratrol for photodegradation. Moreover, the bioavailability of resveratrol in TWIPNPEs was improved in the simulated in vitro digestion. The bioavailability of resveratrol in TWIPNPEs in the simulated system was two times higher than unencapsulated resveratrol. This research could be useful for the encapsulation and application of nutraceuticals like resveratrol based on TWIPNPEs.

Improved water solubility, chemical stability, antioxidant and anticancer activity of resveratrol via nanoencapsulation with pea protein nanofibrils

Fabricated pea protein isolate (PPI) nanofibrils were used as nanocarriers to encapsulate, stabilize and deliver resveratrol (RES). PPI nanofibrils possessed a dramatically higher surface hydrophobicity than PPI (native), and PPI nanofibrils exhibited nanoscale widths of 10 nm and average lengths of 1.0 μm. Fluorescence analyses demonstrated PPI nanofibrils had high binding constant with RES. Compared with RES (free), the aqueous solubility of RES was improved by approximately 1000-fold with PPI nanofibrils complex. DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activity assays showed that the antioxidant capacity of RES was pronouncedly enhanced through the nanocomplexation with PPI nanofibrils. RES-PPI nanofibrils complexes exhibited higher antiproliferative activities than RES (free), with the cell viabilities of 52.6% and 38.5% for RES (free) and RES-PPI nanofibrils complex at 20 μg/mL. This study demonstrates that PPI nanofibrils can be utilized as novel nanocarriers for improvements of the water solubility, chemical stability and in vitro biological activities of hydrophobic nutraceuticals.

Interactions of the molecular assembly of polysaccharide-protein systems as encapsulation materials. A review

Studying the interactions of biopolymers like polysaccharides and proteins is quite important mainly due to the wide number of applications such as the stabilization and encapsulation of active compounds in complex systems. Complexation takes place when materials like proteins and polysaccharides are blended to promote the entrapment of active compounds. The interaction forces between the charged groups in the polymeric chains allow the miscibility of the components in the complex system. Understanding the interactions taking place between the polymers as well as between the wall material and the active compound is important when designing delivery systems. However, some features of the biopolymers like structure, functional groups, or electrical charge as well as extrinsic parameters like pH or ratios might affect the structure and the performance of the complex system when used in encapsulation applications. This work summarizes the recent progress of the polysaccharide/protein complexes for encapsulation and the influence of the pH on the structural modifications during the complexation process.

Oral behavior of emulsified systems with different particle size and thickening agents under simulated conditions

Food behavior during oral processing plays an essential role in the perception of texture. It depends on different factors, including food structure and composition, as well as its behavior when interacting with saliva. This study aimed to investigate the effect of particle size and thickener type of emulsified systems on physical, rheological, tribological, and oral oily coating properties under oral conditions. Six matrices based on oil-in-water emulsions with different particle sizes (NE-nanoemulsion and CE-conventional emulsions) were prepared using a mixture of emulsifiers (10% w/w) and sunflower oil (10% w/w). Thickened agents were added to the matrices (NE and CE) at different concentrations (3-4.5% w/w of starch-ST or 0.4-0.8% w/w xanthan gum-XG) to obtain equi-viscous samples (NE-EV) with their CE-based counterpart. Results showed a decrease in apparent viscosity values under oral conditions (saliva and shearing at 10 s^-1) during the shear time, but this behavior was more evident in starch-based matrices. The lubrication properties of the different matrices depended mainly on the thickener concentration since equi-viscous samples (NE-ST-EV and NE-XG-EV) showed higher coefficient of friction (CoF) values. Finally, oral oily coating was more related to the oil droplets size than to the type of thickener since all NE-based matrices showed a higher amount of coating retained compared to the CE-based ones. Therefore, NE-based matrices could be used as an alternative to increase mouthfeel sensations in food emulsions.

Resveratrol loaded Pickering emulsions stabilized by OSA modified rice starch granules

Resveratrol is a photosensitive, bioactive molecule which has received increasing research interest during the past decade for its antioxidant properties. However, it has low solubility in water or common triglyceride oils. Resveratrol solubilization in oil can only be achieved in essential oils, such as flavour oils, but the stability of emulsions produced with this type of oils is low as they are prone to creaming phenomena and Oswald ripening. In this study, resveratrol was first dissolved in orange oil which was mixed into a medium-chain triglyceride (Miglyol) at different ratios and used as the internal phase of oil-in-water emulsions (O/W). The emulsions were stabilized by octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) modified rice starch granules using two different ratios of starch particle:oil to study the influence of interfacial coverage on the final emulsion droplet size and emulsion stability. The results of this study indicated that stable Pickering emulsions could be prepared using OSA-modified rice starch granules even at partial coverage conditions. Emulsions prepared at an oil fraction of 0.5 using 30% v/v mixture of orange oil in Miglyol as the dispersed phase seemed to be an appropriate resveratrol carrier system, obtaining encapsulation efficiency values close to 90% which results in emulsions with a resveratrol concentration of 8.45 mg/L. Hence, the emulsions prepared are suitable for food fortification applications.

Biopolymer Additives Enhance Tangeretin Bioavailability in Emulsion-Based Delivery Systems: An In Vitro and In Vivo Study

The oral bioavailability of tangeretin, a poly(methoxyflavone) found in citrus fruits, is typically very low because of its extremely limited solubility. In this research, tangeretin was encapsulated within whey protein-stabilized emulsions containing ingredients that may alter their behavior under gastrointestinal conditions and enhance the bioavailability of tangeretin after oral administration: cinnamaldehyde (CA), gum arabic (GA), or hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC). The presence of these ingredients altered the size, aggregation state, and encapsulation efficiency of tangeretin in the emulsions. In vitro studies demonstrated that the bioaccessibility of the encapsulated tangeretin was much higher than that of a crude tangeretin oil suspension. Particularly, the addition of HPMC increased the bioaccessibility of tangeretin from around 36 to 90%. In vivo pharmacokinetics results using rats indicated that tangeretin concentration in the plasma increased from 4- to 20-fold after encapsulation, especially in the presence of HPMC. HPMC also prolonged the release of tangeretin to 22 h. Tangeretin preferentially accumulated within the liver and kidney of the animals. Overall, the knowledge confirmed that structured emulsion-based delivery systems could be used to improve the oral bioavailability of hydrophobic functional ingredients.

Encapsulation of resveratrol using Maillard conjugates and membrane emulsification

Resveratrol is a stilbene phenolic associated with health-promoting properties such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and chemoprevention. Due to its chemical instability and low water solubility, microencapsulation represents a good alternative to provide better results when employing resveratrol as a nutraceutical ingredient. The main purpose of our work was to use low shear membrane emulsification to produce resveratrol-loaded emulsions of low polydispersity and integrate this process to spray drying to produce a powdered product. Resveratrol was dispersed with palm oil in a continuous phase obtained via Maillard reaction. We evaluated the influence of process conditions and phases composition on emulsions properties and performed the characterization of the spray-dried powder. Emulsions droplet size and span decreased as shear stress was increased. Higher dispersed phase fluxes provided increased droplet size polydispersity. Process conditions were set on 60.0 Pa shear stress and 70 L m^-2h^-1 of dispersed phase flux, obtaining emulsions with mean diameter around 30 μm and span of 0.76. Despite this relatively high droplet size of the infeed emulsions, the spray drying process resulted in particles with high encapsulation efficiency (97.97 ± 0.01%), and water content (~3.6%) and diameter (~10.2 μm) similar to particles obtained from fine emulsions in previously reported works.

Plant-Derived Natural Products in Cancer Research: Extraction, Mechanism of Action, and Drug Formulation

Cancer is one of the main causes of death globally and considered as a major challenge for the public health system. The high toxicity and the lack of selectivity of conventional anticancer therapies make the search for alternative treatments a priority. In this review, we describe the main plant-derived natural products used as anticancer agents. Natural sources, extraction methods, anticancer mechanisms, clinical studies, and pharmaceutical formulation are discussed in this review. Studies covered by this review should provide a solid foundation for researchers and physicians to enhance basic and clinical research on developing alternative anticancer therapies.

Enhancing trans-resveratrol topical delivery and photostability through entrapment in chitosan/gum Arabic Pickering emulsions

The surfactant-free nature and higher stability of Pickering emulsions make them preferable solutions over conventional emulsions for skin applications. In this work, Pickering emulsions stabilized by chitosan/gum Arabic (CH/GA) nanoparticles were tested as vehicles for trans-resveratrol topical delivery. Skin absorption was examined ex vivo using Franz diffusion cells and porcine skin. Pickering emulsions allowed higher cutaneous retention and lower permeation of resveratrol, in comparison with a control solution based on a 20% v/v ethanol. The total amount of resveratrol retained in the skin, 24 h after the application, was 11.60% and 10.82% of the applied dose for the tested Pickering emulsion-based formulations prepared with 0.5% and 1.5% w/v CH/GA nanoparticles, respectively. In contrast, resveratrol skin retention from the control solution was only 2.86%. Confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed enhanced skin deposition of Nile Red to deeper layers from the Pickering emulsion-based formulations. Moreover, Pickering emulsions led to trans-resveratrol photostability increase, as measured after exposure to UV for 4 h. These results show that the CH/GA Pickering emulsions are promising solutions for the topical delivery of trans-resveratrol and have the potential to be used as green cosmetic products.