Development of amphotericin B-loaded propionate Sterculia striata polysaccharide nanocarrier

Nanotherapeutics for the delivery of antifungal drugs

The treatment of fungal infections is challenging with high death rates reported among immunocompromised patients. The currently available antifungals suffer from poor bioavailability and solubility, pharmacokinetics, and drug resistance, with limited cellular uptake. The clinical pipeline of new antifungals is dry. The incorporation of antifungal drugs into polymer-based nanocarriers to form nanotherapeutics is a promising approach to enhance the therapeutic outcomes of the available antifungal drugs. This review summarizes different polymer-based nanotherapeutics strategies that have been explored for the delivery of antifungals, resulting in enhanced therapeutic outcomes, such as improved pharmacokinetics, targeted/sustained delivery, prolonged drug circulation, retention of the drugs at the localized site of action, and overcoming drug resistance when compared with the free antifungal drugs.

Prospect of nanomaterials as antimicrobial and antiviral regimen

In recent years studies of nanomaterials have been explored in the field of microbiology due to the increasing evidence of antibiotic resistance. Nanomaterials could be inorganic or organic, and they may be synthesized from natural products from plant or animal origin. The therapeutic applications of nano-materials are wide, from diagnosis of disease to targeted delivery of drugs. Broad-spectrum antiviral and antimicrobial activities of nanoparticles are also well evident. The ratio of nanoparticles surface area to their volume is high and that allows them to be an advantageous vehicle of drugs in many respects. Effective uses of various materials for the synthesis of nanoparticles impart much specificity in them to meet the requirements of specific therapeutic strategies. The potential therapeutic use of nanoparticles and their mechanisms of action against infections from bacteria, fungi and viruses were the focus of this review. Further, their potential advantages, drawbacks, limitations and side effects are also included here. Researchers are characterizing the exposure pathways of nano-medicines that may cause serious toxicity to the subjects or the environment. Indeed, societal ethical issues in using nano-medicines pose a serious question to scientists beyond anything.

Unification of medicines and excipients: The roles of natural excipients for promoting drug delivery

INTRODUCTION

Drug delivery systems (DDSs) formed by natural active compounds be instrumental in developing new green excipients and novel DDS from natural active compounds (NACs). 'Unification of medicines and excipients'(UME), the special inherent nature of the natural active compounds, provides the inspiration and conduction to achieve this goal.

AREAS COVERED

This review summarizes the typical types of NACs from herbal medicine, such as saponins, flavonoids, polysaccharides, etc. that act as excipients and their main application in DDS. The comparison of the drug delivery systems formed by NACs and common materials and the primary formation mechanisms of these NACs are also introduced to provide a deepened understanding of their performance in DDS.

EXPERT OPINION

Many natural bioactive compounds, such as saponins, polysaccharides, etc. have been used in DDS. Diversity of structure and pharmacological effects of NACs turn out the unique advantages in improving the performance of DDSs like targeting ability, adhesion, encapsulation efficiency(EE), etc. and enhancing the bioavailability of loaded drugs.

Antibacterial and Healing Effect of Chicha Gum Hydrogel (Sterculia striata) with Nerolidol

Chicha gum is a natural polymer obtained from the Sterculia striata plant. The hydroxyl groups of its structure have a chemical affinity to form hydrogels, which favors the association with biologically active molecules, such as nerolidol. This association improves the biological properties and allows the material to be used in drug delivery systems. Chicha gum hydrogels associated with nerolidol were produced at two concentrations: 0.01 and 0.02 g mL^-1. Then, the hydrogels were characterized by thermogravimetry (TG), Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and rheological analysis. The antibacterial activity was tested against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. The cytotoxicity was evaluated against Artemia salina. Finally, an in vivo healing assay was carried out. The infrared characterization indicated that interactions were formed during the gel reticulation. This implies the presence of nerolidol in the regions at 3100-3550 cm^-1. The rheological properties changed with an increasing concentration of nerolidol, which resulted in less viscous materials. An antibacterial 83.6% growth inhibition effect was observed using the hydrogel with 0.02 g mL^-1 nerolidol. The in vivo healing assay showed the practical activity of the hydrogels in the wound treatment, as the materials promoted efficient re-epithelialization. Therefore, it was concluded that the chicha hydrogels have the potential to be used as wound-healing products.

Effect of Acyl Chain Length on Hydrophobized Cashew Gum Self-Assembling Nanoparticles: Colloidal Properties and Amphotericin B Delivery

Given its many potential applications, cashew gum hydrophobic derivatives have gained increasing attraction in recent years. We report here the effect of acyl chain length on hydrophobized cashew gum derivatives, using acetic, propionic, and butyric anhydrides on self-assembly nanoparticle properties and amphotericin B delivery. Nanoparticles with unimodal particle size distribution, highly negative zeta potential, and low PDI were produced. Butyrate cashew gum nanoparticles presented smaller size (<~100 nm) than acetylated and propionate cashew gum nanoparticles and no cytotoxicity in murine fibroblast cells was observed up to 100 µg/mL for loaded and unloaded nanoparticles. As a proof of concept of the potential use of the developed nanoparticle as a drug carrier formulation, amphotericin B (AmB) was encapsulated and fully characterized in their physicochemical, AmB association and release, stability, and biological aspects. They exhibited average hydrodynamic diameter lower than ~200 nm, high AmB efficiency encapsulations (up to 94.9%), and controlled release. A decrease in AmB release with the increasing of the anhydride chain length was observed, which explains the differences in antifungal activity against Candida albicans strains. An excellent storage colloidal stability was observed for unloaded and loaded AmB without use of surfactant. Considering the AmB delivery, the acyl derivative with low chain length is shown to be the best one, as it has high drug loading and AmB release, as well as low minimum inhibitory concentration against Candida albicans strains.

Advances in polysaccharide-based nano/microcapsules for biomedical applications: A review

Biocompatible and biodegradable polysaccharides are abundant and renewable natural materials. Polysaccharides and their derivatives are developed into various carrier materials for biomedical applications. In particular, advanced polysaccharide-based nano/microcapsules have received extensive attention in biomedical applications due to their good encapsulation ability and tunability. In recent years, polysaccharide-based nano/microcapsules have been widely used in drug carriers, gene carriers, antigen carriers, wound dressings, bioimaging and biosensors. Numerous research results have confirmed the feasibility, safety, and effectiveness of polysaccharide-based nano/microcapsules in the above-mentioned biomedical applications. This review discussed and analyzed the latest research strategies and design considerations for these applications in detail. The preparation methods, application strategies, and design considerations of polysaccharide-based nano/microcapsules are summarized and analyzed, and their challenges and future research prospects in biomedicine are further discussed. It is expected to provide researchers with inspiration and design ideas.

THE IN-VITRO STUDY OF NOVEL PHOSPHOLIPID MICELLES LOADED WITH AMPHOTERICIN B ON PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM PROTOZOAN

Malaria is one of the most challenging parasitic infectious diseases in tropical and subtropical regions all over the world. The increasing drug resistance of plasmodium falciparum even makes the treatment procedure of malaria challenging and more problematic. Therefore, it is essential to develop new antimalarial drugs for effective treatments. In this study, the encapsulated amphotericin B (Constantinides et al.) in DSPC/DSPE-PEG2000 micelles was investigated as an antimalarial drug against P. falciparum 3D7 strain. The mean particle size, morphological and microstructural properties of drug-free and drug-loaded micelles prepared with amphotericin B were determined through DLS, FESEM, and TEM analysis. The synthesized phospholipid micelles containing AmB drug with a mean diameter of 115nm and a polydispersity index of 0.331. The TEM and SEM studies indicate the uniform and homogeneous morphology of the micelles. Drug encapsulation efficiency is 88.3%. The slow release of the micellar system shows the maximum drug release of 75.67% within 24h. This in vitro study was conducted on P. falciparum 3D7 to investigate the interactions between AmB micelles and P. falciparum parasites using different drug ratios. According to the findings, the IC₅₀ of free AmB is 4.834µg/mL, while the nano-diameter AmB has a significantly lower IC₅₀ of 2.394µg/mL. The results of this study suggest that the drug-loaded phospholipid micelles have significantly higher bioactivity and greater plasmodial properties compared to the direct application of AmB against P. falciparum. Moreover, according to the results of this study, the encapsulated AmB drugs are promising nanostructures for malaria treatment. Therefore the nanoencapsulation AmB showed promising application for malaria treatment.

Recent advances of Sterculia gums uses in drug delivery systems

Trees of the genus Sterculia produce polysaccharide-rich exudates, such as karaya gum (Sterculia urens), chicha gum (Sterculia striata), and Sterculia foetida gum. These anionic biomaterials are biodegradable, with high viscosity, low toxicity, and gelling properties in aqueous media. According to these properties, they show promising applications as a polymer matrix for use in drug delivery systems. For this application, both the chemically modified and the unmodified polysaccharide are used. This review focuses on analyzing the state of the art of recent studies on the use of Sterculia gums in a variety of pharmaceutical forms, such as tablets, hydrogels, micro/nanoparticles, and mucoadhesive films. Sterculia gums-based delivery systems have potential to be explored for new drug delivery systems.

A Review on Polymer and Lipid-Based Nanocarriers and Its Application to Nano-Pharmaceutical and Food-Based Systems

Recently, owing to well-controlled release, enhanced distribution and increased permeability, nanocarriers used for alternative drug and food-delivery strategies have received increasingly attentions. Nanocarriers have attracted a large amount of interest as potential carriers of various bioactive molecules for multiple applications. Drug and food-based delivery via polymeric-based nanocarriers and lipid-based nanocarriers has been widely investigated. Nanocarriers, especially liposomes, are more and more widely used in the area of novel nano-pharmaceutical or food-based design. Herein, we aimed to discuss the recent advancement of different surface-engineered nanocarriers type, along with cutting-edge applications for food and nanomedicine and highlight the alternative of phytochemical as nanocarrier. Additionally, safety concern of nanocarriers was also highlighted.

Recent advances in polymer shell oily-core nanocapsules for drug-delivery applications

Polymeric nanocapsules are vesicular drug-delivery systems composed of an inner oily reservoir surrounded by polymeric membranes. Nanocapsules have various advantages over other nanovesicular systems such as providing controlled drug release properties. We discuss the recent advances in polymeric shell oily-core nanocapsules, illustrating the different types of polymers used and their implementation. Nanocapsules can be utilized for many purposes, especially encapsulation of highly lipophilic drugs. They have been shown to have variable applications, especially in cancer therapy, due to the ability of the polymeric shell to direct the loaded drugs to their target sites, as well as their high internalization efficacy. Those productive applications guaranteed their high potential as drug-delivery systems. However, their clinical development is still in an early stage.

Polymeric Nanoparticles for Antimicrobial Therapies: An Up-To-Date Overview

Despite the many advancements in the pharmaceutical and medical fields and the development of numerous antimicrobial drugs aimed to suppress and destroy pathogenic microorganisms, infectious diseases still represent a major health threat affecting millions of lives daily. In addition to the limitations of antimicrobial drugs associated with low transportation rate, water solubility, oral bioavailability and stability, inefficient drug targeting, considerable toxicity, and limited patient compliance, the major cause for their inefficiency is the antimicrobial resistance of microorganisms. In this context, the risk of a pre-antibiotic era is a real possibility. For this reason, the research focus has shifted toward the discovery and development of novel and alternative antimicrobial agents that could overcome the challenges associated with conventional drugs. Nanotechnology is a possible alternative, as there is significant evidence of the broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity of nanomaterials and nanoparticles in particular. Moreover, owing to their considerable advantages regarding their efficient cargo dissolving, entrapment, encapsulation, or surface attachment, the possibility of forming antimicrobial groups for specific targeting and destruction, biocompatibility and biodegradability, low toxicity, and synergistic therapy, polymeric nanoparticles have received considerable attention as potential antimicrobial drug delivery agents. In this context, the aim of this paper is to provide an up-to-date overview of the most recent studies investigating polymeric nanoparticles designed for antimicrobial therapies, describing both their targeting strategies and their effects.

Phthalic anhydride esterified chicha gum: characterization and antibacterial activity

The objective of this research was to modify chicha gum with phthalic anhydride to obtain a new biologically active material. The chemical modification of the gum structure was proven through FTIR, elemental analysis, XRD, TG, and DSC. The derived materials demonstrated excellent inhibitory effect against P. aeruginosa and K. pneumoniae species (rating 100% inhibition) and could also inhibit Escherichia coli growth. The best antimicrobial activity observed for the derivatives suggests that chicha gum hydrophobization due to the addition of phthalic groups improved the interaction of these derivatives with bacterial cell wall components. On the other hand, the derivatives increased CC₅₀ in macrophages but did not present acute toxicity or hemolytic activity, indicating that they are promising for use in prophylaxis or treatment of infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria.

Nanocarriers for treatment of dermatological diseases: Principle, perspective and practices

Skin diseases are the fourth leading non-fatal skin conditions that act as a burden and affect the world economy globally. This condition affects the quality of a patient's life and has a pronounced impact on both their physical and mental state. Treatment of these skin conditions with conventional approaches shows a lack of efficacy, long treatment duration, recurrence of conditions, systemic side effects, etc., due to improper drug delivery. However, these pitfalls can be overcome with the applications of nanomedicine-based approaches that provide efficient site-specific drug delivery at the target site. These nanomedicine-based strategies are evolved as potential treatment opportunities in the form of nanocarriers such as polymeric and lipidic nanocarriers, nanoemulsions along with emerging others viz. carbon nanotubes for dermatological treatment. The current review focuses on challenges faced by the existing conventional treatments along with the topical therapeutic perspective of nanocarriers in treating various skin diseases. A total of 213 articles have been reviewed and the application of different nanocarriers in treating various skin diseases has been explained in detail through case studies of previously published research works. The toxicity related aspects of nanocarriers are also discussed.

Modified chicha gum by acetylation for antimicrobial and antiparasitic applications: Characterization and biological properties

It was developed a material to act as an antimicrobial and antiparasitic agent through a modification reaction in the gum structure extracted from the plant Sterculia striata. This material was characterized, the oxidant activity was evaluated and the antimicrobial activity against Candida albicans, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella Typhimurium and Klebsiella pneumoniae was investigated, in addition to the effect against Leishmania amazonensis, testing its acute toxicity and its cytotoxicity in human cells. Characterization techniques proved the success of chemical modification. The modification led to an increase in antioxidant activity, with excellent antibacterial activity, reaching almost 100% inhibition for P. aeruginosa and S. Typhimurium, and inhibitory effect above 70% against L. amazonensis, with an affinity far superior to the parasite than macrophages. The derivative showed no acute toxicity, it was non-hemolytic, increased cell viability in macrophages and fibroblasts, and stimulated cell proliferation of keratinocytes, thus being a strong candidate to be used as an antimicrobial and antiparasitic agent in biomedical applications.

Polymeric Nanocapsules as Nanotechnological Alternative for Drug Delivery System: Current Status, Challenges and Opportunities

Polymer-based nanocapsules have been widely studied as a potential drug delivery system in recent years. Nanocapsules-as one of kind nanoparticle-provide a unique nanostructure, consisting of a liquid/solid core with a polymeric shell. This is of increasing interest in drug delivery applications. In this review, nanocapsules delivery systems studied in last decade are reviewed, along with nanocapsule formulation, characterizations of physical/chemical/biologic properties and applications. Furthermore, the challenges and opportunities of nanocapsules applications are also proposed.