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Hu C, Liang B, Sun J, Li J, Xiong Z, Wang SH, Xuetao X. Synthesis and biological evaluation of indole derivatives containing thiazolidine-2,4-dione as α-glucosidase inhibitors with antidiabetic activity. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 264:115957. [PMID: 38029465 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 11/12/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
In order to develop potential α-glucosidase inhibitors with antidiabetic activity, twenty-six indole derivatives containing thiazolidine-2,4-dione were synthesized. All compounds presented potential α-glucosidase inhibitory activities with IC50 values ranging from 2.35 ± 0.11 to 24.36 ± 0.79 μM, respectively compared to acarbose (IC50 = 575.02 ± 10.11 μM). Especially, compound IT4 displayed the strongest α-glucosidase inhibitory activity (IC50 = 2.35 ± 0.11 μM). The inhibition mechanism of compound IT4 on α-glucosidase was clarified by the investigation of kinetics studies, fluorescence quenching, CD spectra, 3D fluorescence spectra, and molecular docking. In vivo antidiabetic experiments demonstrated that oral administration of compound IT4 would suppress fasting blood glucose level and ameliorate their glucose tolerance and dyslipidemia in diabetic mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunmei Hu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Large Animal Models for Biomedicine, School of Pharmacy and Food Engineering, Wuyi University, Jiangmen, 529020, China
| | - Bingwen Liang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Large Animal Models for Biomedicine, School of Pharmacy and Food Engineering, Wuyi University, Jiangmen, 529020, China
| | - Jinping Sun
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Large Animal Models for Biomedicine, School of Pharmacy and Food Engineering, Wuyi University, Jiangmen, 529020, China
| | - Jiangyi Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Large Animal Models for Biomedicine, School of Pharmacy and Food Engineering, Wuyi University, Jiangmen, 529020, China
| | - Zhuang Xiong
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Large Animal Models for Biomedicine, School of Pharmacy and Food Engineering, Wuyi University, Jiangmen, 529020, China
| | - Shao-Hua Wang
- School of Pharmacy & State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry & Collaborative Innovation Center for Northwestern Chinese Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, China.
| | - Xu Xuetao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Large Animal Models for Biomedicine, School of Pharmacy and Food Engineering, Wuyi University, Jiangmen, 529020, China.
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2
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Mitra S, Chatterjee S, Bose S, Panda P, Basak S, Ghosh N, Mandal SC, Singhmura S, Halder AK. Finding structural requirements of structurally diverse α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibitors through validated and predictive 2D-QSAR and 3D-QSAR analyses. J Mol Graph Model 2024; 126:108640. [PMID: 37801809 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2023.108640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 09/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/08/2023]
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemic state. The α-glucosidase and α-amylase are considered two major targets for the management of Type 2 DM due to their ability of metabolizing carbohydrates into simpler sugars. In the current study, cheminformatics analyses were performed to develop validated and predictive models with a dataset of 187 α-glucosidase and α-amylase dual inhibitors. Separate linear, interpretable and statistically robust 2D-QSAR models were constructed with datasets containing the activities of α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibitors with an aim to explain the crucial structural and physicochemical attributes responsible for higher activity towards these targets. Consequently, some descriptors of the models pointed out the importance of specific structural moieties responsible for the higher activities for these targets and on the other hand, properties such as ionization potential and mass of the compounds as well as number of hydrogen bond donors in molecules were found to be crucial in determining the binding potentials of the dataset compounds. Statistically significant 3D-QSAR models were developed with both α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibition datapoints to estimate the importance of 3D electrostatic and steric fields for improved potentials towards these two targets. Molecular docking performed with selected compounds with homology model of α-glucosidase and X-ray crystal structure of α-amylase largely supported the interpretations obtained from the cheminformatic analyses. The current investigation should serve as important guidelines for the design of future α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibitors. Besides, the current investigation is entirely performed by using non-commercial open-access tools to ensure easy accessibility and reproducibility of the investigation which may help researchers throughout the world to work more on drug design and discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumya Mitra
- Dr. B. C. Roy College of Pharmacy & Allied Health Sciences, Durgapur, 713206, India
| | - Subhadas Chatterjee
- Dr. B. C. Roy College of Pharmacy & Allied Health Sciences, Durgapur, 713206, India
| | - Shobhan Bose
- Dr. B. C. Roy College of Pharmacy & Allied Health Sciences, Durgapur, 713206, India
| | - Parthasarathi Panda
- Dr. B. C. Roy College of Pharmacy & Allied Health Sciences, Durgapur, 713206, India
| | - Souvik Basak
- Dr. B. C. Roy College of Pharmacy & Allied Health Sciences, Durgapur, 713206, India
| | - Nilanjan Ghosh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, 700032, India.
| | - Subhash C Mandal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, 700032, India
| | - Saroj Singhmura
- Dr. B. C. Roy College of Pharmacy & Allied Health Sciences, Durgapur, 713206, India
| | - Amit Kumar Halder
- Dr. B. C. Roy College of Pharmacy & Allied Health Sciences, Durgapur, 713206, India.
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3
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Recent developments in synthetic α-glucosidase inhibitors: A comprehensive review with structural and molecular insight. J Mol Struct 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2023.135115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
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4
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Nawaz M, Taha M, Qureshi F, Ullah N, Selvaraj M, Shahzad S, Chigurupati S, Abubshait SA, Ahmad T, Chinnam S, Hisaindee S. Synthesis, α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition and molecular docking studies of indazole derivatives. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2022; 40:10730-10740. [PMID: 34463216 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2021.1947892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Herein, we report the synthesis and inhibitory potential of indazole (Methyl 1H-indazole-4-carboxylate) derivatives (1-13) against α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes. The described derivatives demonstrated good inhibitory potential with IC50 values, ranging between 15.04 ± 0.05 to 76.70 ± 0.06 µM ± SEM for α-amylase and 16.99 ± 0.19 to 77.97 ± 0.19 µM ± SEM for α-glucosidase, respectively. In particular, compounds (8-10 and 12) displayed significant inhibitory activities against both the screened enzymes, with their inhibitory potential comparable to the standard acarbose (12.98 ± 0.03 and 12.79 ± 0.17 µM ± SEM, respectively). Additionally, the influence of different substituents on enzyme inhibition activities was assessed to study the structure activity relationships. Molecular docking simulations were performed to rationalize the binding of derivatives/compounds with enzymes. All the synthesized derivatives (1-13) were characterized with the aid of spectroscopic instruments such as 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, HR-MS, elemental analysis and FTIR.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Nawaz
- Department of Nano-Medicine Research, Institute for Research and Medical Consultations (IRMC), Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
| | - Muhammad Taha
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Institute for Research and Medical Consultations (IRMC), Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
| | - Faiza Qureshi
- Department of Nano-Medicine Research, Institute for Research and Medical Consultations (IRMC), Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia.,Deanship of Scientific Research, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nisar Ullah
- Chemistry Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
| | - Manikandan Selvaraj
- School of Chemical Engineering, Monash University, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - Sumaira Shahzad
- School of Business Administration, College of International Education, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Sridevi Chigurupati
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, Qassim University, Buraidah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Samar A Abubshait
- Department of Nano-Medicine Research, Institute for Research and Medical Consultations (IRMC), Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia.,Department of Chemistry, College of Science and Basic & Applied Scientific Research Centre, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
| | - Tauqir Ahmad
- Chemistry Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sampath Chinnam
- Department of Chemistry, B.M.S. College of Engineering, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| | - Soleiman Hisaindee
- Chemistry Department, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, UAE
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5
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Wu Y, Liu C, Hu L. Fragment-Based Dynamic Combinatorial Chemistry for Identification of Selective α-Glucosidase Inhibitors. ACS Med Chem Lett 2022; 13:1791-1796. [PMID: 36385930 PMCID: PMC9661702 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.2c00405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Efforts to combine advantages of fragment-based drug design (FBDD) and dynamic combinatorial chemistry (DCC) for the development of selective α-glucosidase inhibitors were described. Starting from 5 rationally designed fragments, two iterative dynamic combinatorial libraries (DCLs) comprising 29 acylhydrazone products were generated and screened using α-glucosidase and α-amylase as the templates. The optimal ligand identified showed substantial α-glucosidase inhibition with high selectivity over α-amylase as well as low cytotoxicity. Furthermore, inhibition type and detailed ligand/enzyme binding interactions were elucidated by the binding kinetic study and docking simulation, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Wu
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu
University, 301 Xuefu Road, 212013 Zhenjiang, China
| | - Changming Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu
University, 301 Xuefu Road, 212013 Zhenjiang, China
| | - Lei Hu
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu
University, 301 Xuefu Road, 212013 Zhenjiang, China
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6
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Niri DR, Sayahi MH, Behrouz S, Moazzam A, Mojtabavi S, Faramarzi MA, Larijani B, Rastegar H, Mohammadi-Khanaposhtani M, Mahdavi M. Design, synthesis, in vitro, and in silico biological evaluations of coumarin-indole hybrids as new anti-α-glucosidase agents. BMC Chem 2022; 16:84. [PMID: 36329490 PMCID: PMC9635080 DOI: 10.1186/s13065-022-00882-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A series of coumarin-indole hybrids was synthesized as the new α-glucosidase inhibitors. The title hybrids were considered as α-glucosidase inhibitors because had two active pharmacophores against α-glucosidase: coumarin and indole. METHODS The thirteen various derivatives 4a-m were synthesized, purified, and fully characterized. These compounds were evaluated against α-glucosidase in vitro and in silico. In silico pharmacokinetic studies of the most potent compounds were also performed. RESULTS Most of the title compounds exhibited high anti-α-glucosidase activity in comparison to standard drug acarbose. In particular, the phenoxy derivative 4d namely 3-((1H-indol-3-yl)(3-phenoxyphenyl)methyl)-4-hydroxy-2H-chromen-2-one showed promising activity. This compound is a competitive inhibitor against α-glucosidase and showed the lowest binding energy at the α-glucosidase active site in comparison to other potent synthesized compounds and acarbose. CONCLUSION Compound 4d can be a lead compound for further structural development to obtain effective and potent α-glucosidase inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davood Rezapour Niri
- grid.444860.a0000 0004 0600 0546Medicinal Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Shiraz University of Technology, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Hosein Sayahi
- grid.412462.70000 0000 8810 3346Department of Chemistry, Payame Noor University (PNU), Tehran, Iran
| | - Somayeh Behrouz
- grid.444860.a0000 0004 0600 0546Medicinal Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Shiraz University of Technology, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Ali Moazzam
- grid.411705.60000 0001 0166 0922Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Center, Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinical Sciences Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Somayeh Mojtabavi
- grid.411705.60000 0001 0166 0922Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Ali Faramarzi
- grid.411705.60000 0001 0166 0922Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Bagher Larijani
- grid.411705.60000 0001 0166 0922Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Center, Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinical Sciences Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hossein Rastegar
- Cosmetic Products Research Center, Iranian Food and Drug Administration, MOHE, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maryam Mohammadi-Khanaposhtani
- grid.411705.60000 0001 0166 0922Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran ,grid.411495.c0000 0004 0421 4102Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Mohammad Mahdavi
- grid.411705.60000 0001 0166 0922Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Center, Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinical Sciences Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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7
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Soliman HA, Shamroukh AH, Kotb ER, Mahmoud K, Anouar EH, Hegab MI. Molecular docking and anticancer evaluation of some newly synthesized 4-aryl-2-(2-oxopropoxy)-6-(cyclohexyl)nicotinonitrile and their furo[2,3-b]pyridine derivatives. J Mol Struct 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2022.133148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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8
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Garg P, Rawat RS, Bhatt H, Kumar S, Reddy SR. Recent Developments in the Synthesis of N‐Heterocyclic Compounds as α‐Amylase Inhibitors via In‐Vitro and In‐Silico Analysis: Future Drugs for Treating Diabetes. ChemistrySelect 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202201706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pooja Garg
- Department of Chemistry SAS Vellore Institute of Technology Vellore-632014 Tamil Nadu India
| | - Ravindra Singh Rawat
- Centre for Bio Separation and Technology Vellore Institute of Technology Vellore- 632014 Tamil Nadu India
| | - Harshil Bhatt
- Centre for Bio Separation and Technology Vellore Institute of Technology Vellore- 632014 Tamil Nadu India
| | - Sanjit Kumar
- Centre for Bio Separation and Technology Vellore Institute of Technology Vellore- 632014 Tamil Nadu India
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9
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Bio-Oriented Synthesis of Novel (S)-Flurbiprofen Clubbed Hydrazone Schiff’s Bases for Diabetic Management: In Vitro and In Silico Studies. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15060672. [PMID: 35745591 PMCID: PMC9231348 DOI: 10.3390/ph15060672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A new series of (S)-flurbiprofen derivatives 4a–4p and 5a–5n were synthesized with different aromatic or aliphatic aldehydes and ketones to produce Schiff’s bases and their structures were confirmed through HR-ESI-MS, 1H, and 13C-NMR spectroscopy. The α-glucosidase inhibitory activities of the newly synthesized compounds were scrutinized, in which six compounds 5k, 4h, 5h, 4d, 4b, and 5i showed potent inhibition in the range of 0.93 to 10.26 µM, respectively, whereas fifteen compounds 4c, 4g, 4i, 4j, 4l, 4m, 4o, 4p, 5c, 5d, 5j, 5l, 5m, 5n and 1 exhibited significant inhibitory activity with IC50 in range of = 11.42 to 48.39 µM. In addition, compounds 5g, 5f, 4k, 4n, and 4f displayed moderate-to-low activities. The modes of binding of all the active compounds were determined through the molecular docking approach, which revealed that two residues, specifically Glu277 and His351 are important in the stabilization of the active compounds in the active site of α-glucosidase. Furthermore, these compounds block the active site with high binding energies (−7.51 to −3.36 kcal/mol) thereby inhibiting the function of the enzyme.
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10
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Ye C, Zhang R, Dong L, Chi J, Huang F, Dong L, Zhang M, Jia X. α-Glucosidase inhibitors from brown rice bound phenolics extracts (BRBPE): Identification and mechanism. Food Chem 2022; 372:131306. [PMID: 34638069 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Brown rice bound phenolics extracts (BRBPE) have been reported to possess α-glucosidase inhibitory effects, the specific enzyme inhibitors involved in this process were unknown. Here, α-glucosidase inhibitors in BRBPE were screened using bioaffinity ultrafiltration methods, and seven phenolic compounds - three monomers (p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid and methyl ferulate), three dimers (8-5', 5-5' and 8-O-4' diferulic acid) and a trimer (5-5'/8-O-4″ dehydrotriferulic acid) were identified as exact inhibitors, among which 5-5'/8-O-4″ dehydrotriferulic acid and 5-5'diferulic acid exhibited the best inhibitory activity. Enzyme kinetic analysis suggested that the inhibitory mechanism of these seven inhibitors including competitive, noncompetitive, uncompetitive and mixed manner. Molecular docking analysis revealed that the seven inhibitors bind with α-glucosidase mainly by hydrogen bonding interaction, hydrophobic force and ionic bond. Molecular dynamics simulation further explored the structure and molecular property of phenolic-glucosidase complex. This work provided a deep insight into brown rice bound phenolics acting as potent α-glucosidase inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caiyan Ye
- Sericultural & Agri-Food Research Institute Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Key Laboratory of Functional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Products Processing, Guangzhou 510610, PR China
| | - Ruifen Zhang
- Sericultural & Agri-Food Research Institute Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Key Laboratory of Functional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Products Processing, Guangzhou 510610, PR China
| | - Limei Dong
- Department of Horticulture, Guangdong Eco-Engineering Polytechnic, Guangzhou 510520, PR China
| | - Jianwei Chi
- Sericultural & Agri-Food Research Institute Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Key Laboratory of Functional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Products Processing, Guangzhou 510610, PR China
| | - Fei Huang
- Sericultural & Agri-Food Research Institute Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Key Laboratory of Functional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Products Processing, Guangzhou 510610, PR China
| | - Lihong Dong
- Sericultural & Agri-Food Research Institute Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Key Laboratory of Functional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Products Processing, Guangzhou 510610, PR China
| | - Mingwei Zhang
- Sericultural & Agri-Food Research Institute Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Key Laboratory of Functional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Products Processing, Guangzhou 510610, PR China.
| | - Xuchao Jia
- Sericultural & Agri-Food Research Institute Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Key Laboratory of Functional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Products Processing, Guangzhou 510610, PR China.
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11
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Wu Y, Zhao S, Hu L. Identification of potent α-amylase inhibitors via dynamic combinatorial chemistry. Bioorg Med Chem 2022; 55:116609. [PMID: 35021143 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2022.116609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Revised: 12/31/2021] [Accepted: 01/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we report for the first time the discovery of potent α-amylase inhibitors using principle of dynamic combinatorial chemistry. The best compound identified exhibited not only high inhibitory efficiency but also low cytotoxicity. The binding mode and possible mechanism are determined in the subsequent kinetic and molecular docking studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Wu
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Rd., Zhenjiang, China
| | - Shuang Zhao
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Rd., Zhenjiang, China
| | - Lei Hu
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Rd., Zhenjiang, China.
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12
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Design, synthesis, biological evaluations and in silico studies of sulfonate ester derivatives of 2-(2-benzylidenehydrazono)thiazolidin-4-one as potential α-glucosidase inhibitors. J Mol Struct 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2021.131266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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13
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Maliwal D, Pissurlenkar RRS, Telvekar V. Identification of Novel Potential Anti-Diabetic Candidates targeting Human Pancreatic ɑ-Amylase and Human ɑ-Glycosidase: An Exhaustive Structure-based Screening. CAN J CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1139/cjc-2021-0238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Diabetes is a major health issue that half a billion people affected worldwide. It is a serious, long-term medical condition majorly impacting the lives and well-being of individuals, families, and societies at large. It is amongst the top 10 diseases responsible for the death amongst adults with an expected rise to 10.2% (578 million) by 2030 and 10.9% (700 million) by 2045. The carbohydrates absorbed into the body are hydrolyzed by pancreatic α-amylase and other enzymes, human α-glucosidase. The α-amylase and α-glucosidase are validated therapeutic targets in the treatment of Type II diabetes (T2DM) as they play a vital role in modulating the blood glucose post meal. Herein, we report novel and diverse molecules as potential candidates, with predicted affinity for α-amylase and α-glucosidase. These molecules have been identified via hierarchical multistep docking of small molecules database with the estimated binding free energies. A Glide XP Score cutoff −8.00 kcal/mol was implemented to filter out non potential molecules. Four molecules viz. amb22034702, amb18105639, amb17153304, and amb9760832 have been identified after an exhaustive computational study involving, evaluation of binding interactions and assessment of the pharmacokinetics and toxicity profiles. The in-depth analysis of protein– ligand interactions was performed using a 100ns molecular dynamics (MD) simulation to establish the dynamic stability. Furthermore MM-GBSA based binding free energies were computed for 1000 trajectory snapshots to ascertain the strong binding affinity of these molecules for α-amylase and αglucosidase. The identified molecules can be considered as promising candidates for further drug development through necessary experimental assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepika Maliwal
- Institute of Chemical Technology, 52735, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | | | - Vikas Telvekar
- Institute of Chemical Technology, 52735, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
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14
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Synthesis of indole derivatives as diabetics II inhibitors and enzymatic kinetics study of α-glucosidase and α-amylase along with their in-silico study. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 190:301-318. [PMID: 34481854 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.08.207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we have investigated a series of indole-based compounds for their inhibitory study against pancreatic α-amylase and intestinal α-glucosidase activity. Inhibitors of carbohydrate degrading enzymes appear to have an essential role as antidiabetic drugs. All analogous exhibited good to moderate α-amylase (IC50 = 3.80 to 47.50 μM), and α-glucosidase inhibitory interactions (IC50 = 3.10-52.20 μM) in comparison with standard acarbose (IC50 = 12.28 μM and 11.29 μM). The analogues 4, 11, 12, 15, 14 and 17 had good activity potential both for enzymes inhibitory interactions. Structure activity relationships were deliberated to propose the influence of substituents on the inhibitory potential of analogues. Docking studies revealed the interaction of more potential analogues and enzyme active site. Further, we studied their kinetic study of most active compounds showed that compounds 15, 14, 12, 17 and 11 are competitive for α-amylase and non- competitive for α-glucosidase.
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15
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Ezzat SM, Abdallah HMI, Yassen NN, Radwan RA, Mostafa ES, Salama MM, Salem MA. Phenolics from Physalis peruviana fruits ameliorate streptozotocin-induced diabetes and diabetic nephropathy in rats via induction of autophagy and apoptosis regression. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 142:111948. [PMID: 34385108 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2021.111948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2021] [Revised: 07/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of our study was to evaluate the effect of Physalis peruviana L. fruits in the management of diabetes and diabetic nephropathy in relation to its metabolic profile. In-vitro α-amylase, β-glucosidase, and lipase inhibition activities were assessed for the ethanolic extract (EtOH) and its subfractions. Ethyl acetate (EtOAc) fraction showed the highest α-amylase, β-glucosidase, and lipase inhibition effect. In vivo antihyperglycemic testing of EtOAc in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats showed that it decreased the blood glucose level, prevented the reduction in body weight, improved serum indicators of kidney injury (urea, uric acid, creatinine), and function (albumin and total protein). EtOAc increased autophagic parameters (LC3B, AMPK) and depressed mTOR contents. Histopathology revealed that EtOAc ameliorated the pathological features and decreased the glycogen content induced by STZ. The immunohistochemical analysis showed that EtOAc reduced P53 expression as compared to the STZ-diabetic group. UPLC-ESI-MS/MS metabolite profiling of EtOAc allowed the identification of several phenolic compounds. Among the isolated compounds, gallic acid, its methylated dimer and the glycosides of quercetin had promising α-amylase and β-glucosidase inhibition activity. The results suggest that the phenolic-rich fraction has a protective effects against diabetic nephropathy presumably via enhancing autophagy (AMPK/mTOR pathway) and prevention of apoptosis (P53 suppression).
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahira M Ezzat
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El-Aini Street, Cairo 11562, Egypt; Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts (MSA), Giza 12451, Egypt.
| | - Heba M I Abdallah
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical Research Division, National Research Centre (ID: 60014618), P.O. 12622, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt.
| | - Noha N Yassen
- Department of Pathology, Medical Research Division, National Research Centre (ID: 60014618), P.O. 12622, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt.
| | - Rasha A Radwan
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Sinai University, East Kantara Branch, New City El Ismailia 41611, Egypt.
| | - Eman S Mostafa
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts (MSA), Giza 12451, Egypt.
| | - Maha M Salama
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El-Aini Street, Cairo 11562, Egypt; Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, The British University in Egypt, El Sherouk City, Suez Desert Road, Cairo 11837, Egypt.
| | - Mohamed A Salem
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Menoufia University, Gamal Abd El Nasr st., Shibin Elkom 32511, Menoufia, Egypt.
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Aroua LM, Almuhaylan HR, Alminderej FM, Messaoudi S, Chigurupati S, Al-Mahmoud S, Mohammed HA. A facile approach synthesis of benzoylaryl benzimidazole as potential α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitor with antioxidant activity. Bioorg Chem 2021; 114:105073. [PMID: 34153810 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2021.105073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2021] [Revised: 04/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic routes to a series of benzoylarylbenzimidazol 3a-h have been derived from 3,4-diaminobenzophenone and an appropriate arylaldehyde in the presence of ammonium chloride or a mixture of ammonium chloride and sodium metabisulfite as catalyst. The antioxidant activity of targeted compounds 3a-h has been measured by four different methods and the overall antioxidant evaluation of the compounds indicated the significant MCA, FRAP, and (DPPH-SA) of the compounds except for the compound 3h. In vitro antidiabetic assay of α-amylase and α-glucosidase suggest a good to excellent activity for most tested compounds. The target benzimidazole 3f containing hydroxyl motif at para-position of phenyl revealed an important activity inhibitor against α- amylase (IC50 = 12.09 ± 0.38 µM) and α-glucosidase (IC50 = 11.02 ± 0.04 µM) comparable to the reference drug acarbose. The results of the anti hyperglycemic activity were supported by means of in silico molecular docking calculations showing strong binding affinity of compounds 3a-h with human pancreatic α-amylase (HPA) and human lysosomal acid-α-glucosidase (HLAG) active sites that confirm a good to excellent activity for most of tested compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lotfi M Aroua
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Qassim University, Campus University, King Abdulaziz Road, Al-Malida, 51452-P.O. Box: 6644, Buraydah, Qassim, Saudi Arabia; Laboratory of Organic Structural Chemistry and Macromolecules, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, Tunis El-Manar University, El Manar I 2092, Tunis, Tunisia; Carthage University, Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, 7021 Jarzouna, Tunisia.
| | - Hind R Almuhaylan
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Qassim University, Campus University, King Abdulaziz Road, Al-Malida, 51452-P.O. Box: 6644, Buraydah, Qassim, Saudi Arabia
| | - Fahad M Alminderej
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Qassim University, Campus University, King Abdulaziz Road, Al-Malida, 51452-P.O. Box: 6644, Buraydah, Qassim, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sabri Messaoudi
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Qassim University, Campus University, King Abdulaziz Road, Al-Malida, 51452-P.O. Box: 6644, Buraydah, Qassim, Saudi Arabia; Carthage University, Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, 7021 Jarzouna, Tunisia
| | - Sridevi Chigurupati
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, Qassim University, Buraidah 52571, Saudi Arabia
| | - Suliman Al-Mahmoud
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, Qassim University, Buraidah 52571, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hamdoon A Mohammed
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, Qassim University, Buraidah 52571, Saudi Arabia; Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
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Mphahlele MJ, Agbo EN, Choong YS. Synthesis, Structure, Carbohydrate Enzyme Inhibition, Antioxidant Activity, In Silico Drug-Receptor Interactions and Drug-Like Profiling of the 5-Styryl-2-Aminochalcone Hybrids. Molecules 2021; 26:2692. [PMID: 34064448 PMCID: PMC8125089 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26092692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The 2-amino-5-(3/4-fluorostyryl)acetophenones were prepared and reacted with benzaldehyde derivatives to afford the corresponding 5-styryl-2-aminochalcone hybrids. The trans geometry of the styryl and α,β-unsaturated carbonyl arms, and the presence of NH…O intramolecular hydrogen bond were validated using 1H-NMR and X-ray data. The 2-amino-5-styrylacetophenones and their 5-styryl-2-aminochalcone derivatives were screened in vitro for their capability to inhibit α-glucosidase and/or α-amylase activities. Their antioxidant properties were evaluated in vitro through the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and nitric oxide (NO) free radical scavenging assays. Kinetic studies of the most active derivatives from each series against α-glucosidase and/or α-amylase activities have been performed supported by molecular docking studies to determine plausible protein-ligand interactions on a molecular level. The key aspects of the pharmacokinetics of these compounds, i.e., absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion have also been simulated at theoretical level. The most active compounds from each series, namely, 2a and 3e, were evaluated for cytotoxicity against the normal monkey kidney cells (Vero cells) and the adenocarcinomic human epithelial (A549) cell line to establish their safety profile at least in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malose J. Mphahlele
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Engineering and Technology, University of South Africa, Private Bag X06, Florida 1710, South Africa;
| | - Emmanuel Ndubuisi Agbo
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Engineering and Technology, University of South Africa, Private Bag X06, Florida 1710, South Africa;
| | - Yee Siew Choong
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
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Taha M, Alshamrani FJ, Rahim F, Anouar EH, Uddin N, Chigurupati S, Almandil NB, Farooq RK, Iqbal N, Aldubayan M, Venugopal V, Khan KM. Synthesis, characterization, biological evaluation, and kinetic study of indole base sulfonamide derivatives as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors in search of potent anti-Alzheimer agent. JOURNAL OF KING SAUD UNIVERSITY - SCIENCE 2021; 33:101401. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jksus.2021.101401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2023]
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Zhu Y, Wu X, Liu Y, Zhang J, Lin D. Synergistic growth inhibition effect of TiO 2 nanoparticles and tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate on earthworms in soil. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2021; 208:111462. [PMID: 33069946 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.111462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The co-existence of organic pollutants and nanoparticles in the environment may lead to combined biological effects. The joint toxicity of pollutants and nanoparticles has been receiving increasing attention from researchers, but few studies have focused on soil biota due to the complexity of soil matrices. This study investigated the effects of tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) at 0, 5, and 25 mg/kg and nanoparticulate TiO2 (nTiO2) at 0, 500, and 2500 mg/kg in a 3 × 3 factorial arrangement of treatments for 28 days (d) on Eisenia fetida (earthworm). Compared with the control group (the 0 mg/kg TDCIPP + 0 mg/kg nTiO2 treatment), all other single (TDCIPP or nTiO2) and binary (TDCIPP + nTiO2) treatments except for the single 500 mg/kg nTiO2 treatment significantly reduced the weight gain rate of E. fetida. The binary treatments had significantly greater such effect than their corresponding single treatments, exhibiting a synergistic toxicity between TDCIPP and nTiO2 on the growth of E. fetida. Since TDCIPP and nTiO2 had no significant effect on their concentrations in the soil or in E. fetida during binary exposure, the synergistic toxicity could be a result of the superimposition of the toxicity pathways of TDCIPP and nTiO2. Transcriptomic analysis of E. fetida intestinal region revealed that exposure to 25 mg/kg TDCIPP or 2500 mg/kg nTiO2 affected nutrient-related or cell apoptosis and DNA damage related genes, respectively; their co-exposure greatly inhibited genes related to nutrient digestion and absorption, while causing abnormal transcription of genes related to the development and maintenance of E. fetida's muscles, leading to synergistic toxicity. These findings provide new insights into the environmental risks of organophosphorus flame retardants, nanoparticles, and their co-exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya Zhu
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Watershed Science and Health, School of Public Health and Management, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Xinyue Wu
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yaoxuan Liu
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jianying Zhang
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Daohui Lin
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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Wang Z, Peng S, Peng M, She Z, Yang Q, Huang T. Adsorption and desorption characteristics of polyphenols from Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. leaves with macroporous resin and its inhibitory effect on α-amylase and α-glucosidase. ANNALS OF TRANSLATIONAL MEDICINE 2020; 8:1004. [PMID: 32953804 PMCID: PMC7475476 DOI: 10.21037/atm-20-5468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Background Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. (EUO) was a traditional Chinese herb, its leaves were abundant in China, and polyphenol compounds were considered to be an important active ingredient in Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. leaves (EUOL). However, previous research mainly focused on compound identification and extraction process, there were few reported on the efficient enrichment process and biological activity evaluation of polyphenols in EUOL. Methods The adsorption and desorption characteristics of twelve different resins (HPD-100, HPD-300, HPD-600, D-3250, X-5, D-140, NKA-9, NKA-II, D-101, AB-8, S-8 and Polyamide) were investigated to develop an efficient method for the enrichment of polyphenol from EUOL, and the static adsorption, kinetics, isotherm and thermodynamics of the polyphenol from EUOL were analyzed. The eluted component was obtained through dynamic elution, and its main polyphenol compounds were detected by high-phase liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the inhibitory effects on the enzyme activity of α-amylase and α-glucosidase was also evaluated for different elution components. Meanwhile, the binding of main polyphenol compounds to enzyme was also evaluated. Results The selected resins (HPD-300, HPD-600, D-3250, X-5, D-140, NKA-9, D-101 and AB-8) showed adsorption patterns that fitted well to the pseudo second-order kinetics. The intra-particle diffusion model demonstrated that the diffusion of polyphenol compounds on these resins were divided into three processes. For HPD-300, HPD-600 and NKA-9, the Freundlich model better described the adsorption isotherm behavior than the Langmuir model, and the adsorption of polyphenol was a physical, exothermic, and spontaneous process. Subsequently, dynamic elution was performed yielding a higher polyphenol content in a 60% ethanol-water elution component, and it also exhibited a higher inhibitory effect on α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity. Furthermore, as the main polyphenol compounds, chlorogenic acid, rutin, quercetin and kaempferol were used to simulate the binding to the enzyme protein through molecular docking technology. The results showed that quercetin had a higher docking score for α-amylase, while rutin displayed superior binding to α-glucosidase. Conclusions Therefore, polyphenols of EUOL could be enriched through macroporous resins and have the potential to be effective enzyme inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihong Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Emergency Test for Dangerous Chemicals, Guangdong Institute of Analysis (China National Analytical Center Guangzhou), Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China.,School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Sheng Peng
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Forest Products and Chemical Industry Engineering, Jishou University, Zhangjiajie, China
| | - Mijun Peng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Emergency Test for Dangerous Chemicals, Guangdong Institute of Analysis (China National Analytical Center Guangzhou), Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhigang She
- School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qiuling Yang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Emergency Test for Dangerous Chemicals, Guangdong Institute of Analysis (China National Analytical Center Guangzhou), Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Tao Huang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Emergency Test for Dangerous Chemicals, Guangdong Institute of Analysis (China National Analytical Center Guangzhou), Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
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Novel cyclic thiourea derivatives of aminoalcohols at the presence of AlCl 3 catalyst as potent α-glycosidase and α-amylase inhibitors: Synthesis, characterization, bioactivity investigation and molecular docking studies. Bioorg Chem 2020; 104:104216. [PMID: 32911191 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2020.104216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The article is devoted to the targeted synthesis and study of cyclic thiourea and their various new derivatives as new organic compounds containing polyfunctional group in the molecule. First time the reaction of the corresponding synthesized pyrimidinethione with 1,2-epoxy-3-chlorpropane at the presence of AlCl3 catalyst in 75-80% yield alkyl-1-(3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl)-4-alkyl-6-phenyl-2-thioxo-1,2,5,6- tetrahydropyrimidine-5-carboxylates. In the next stage, new cyclic thiourea derivatives of aminoalcohols were synthesised from the reaction of chlorinated derivatives of pyrimidinethiones with single amines and their structures were investigated by spectroscopic methods. In this study, a series of novel compounds were tested towards some metabolic enzymes including α-glycosidase (α-Gly) and α-amylase (α-Amy) enzymes. Novel compounds showed Kis in ranging of 10.43 ± 0.94-111.37 ± 13.25 µM on α-glycosidase and IC50 values in ranging of 14.38-106.51 µM on α-amylase. The novel cyclic thiourea derivatives of aminoalcohols had effective inhibition profiles against all tested metabolic enzymes. Binding affinity and inhibition mechanism of the most active compounds were detected with in silico studies and have shown that 2-Hydroxypropyl and butan-1-aminium moieties play a key role for inhibition of the enzymes.
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