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Shi YZ, Wang ZJ, Shi N, Bai LY, Jiang YM, Jiang L, Liu T, Wei MZ, Qin ML, Luo XD. Anti-MRSA mechanism of spirostane saponin in Rohdea pachynema F.T.Wang & tang. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2024; 331:118327. [PMID: 38750987 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2024.118327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2024] [Revised: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/20/2024]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY RELEVANCE Rohdea pachynema F.T.Wang & Tang (R. pachynema), is a traditional folk medicine used for the treatment of stomach pain, stomach ulcers, bruises, and skin infections in China. Some of the diseases may relate to microbial infections in traditional applications. However few reports on its antimicrobial properties and bioactive components. AIM OF THE STUDY To identify its bioactive constituents against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in vitro and in vivo, and its mechanism. MATERIALS AND METHODS The anti-MRSA ingredient 6α-O-[β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1 → 3)-β-D-quinovopyranosyl]-(25S)-5α-spirostan-3β-ol (XQS) was obtained from R. pachynema by phytochemical isolation. Subsequently, XQS underwent screening using the broth microdilution method and growth inhibition curves to assess its antibacterial activity. The mechanism of XQS was evaluated by multigeneration induction, biofilm resistance assay, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and metabolomics. Additionally, a mouse skin infection model was established in vivo. RESULTS 26 compounds were identified from the R. pachynema, in which anti-MRSA spirostane saponin (XQS) was reported for the first time with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 8 μg/mL. XQS might bind to peptidoglycan (PGN) of the cell wall, phosphatidylglycerol (PG), and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) of the cell membrane, then destroying the cell wall and the cell membrane, resulting in reduced membrane fluidity and membrane depolarization. Furthermore, XQS affected MRSA lipid metabolism, amino acid metabolism, and ABC transporters by metabolomics analysis, which targeted cell walls and membranes causing less susceptibility to drug resistance. Furthermore, XQS (8 mg/kg) recovered skin wounds in mice infected by MRSA effectively, superior to vancomycin (8 mg/kg). CONCLUSIONS XQS showed anti-MRSA bioactivity in vitro and in vivo, and its mechanism association with cell walls and membranes was reported for the first, which supported the traditional uses of R. pachynema and explained its sensitivity to MRSA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang-Zhu Shi
- Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of Education and Yunnan Province, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650091, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhao-Jie Wang
- Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of Education and Yunnan Province, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650091, People's Republic of China
| | - Nian Shi
- Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of Education and Yunnan Province, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650091, People's Republic of China
| | - Li-Yu Bai
- Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of Education and Yunnan Province, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650091, People's Republic of China
| | - Yue-Ming Jiang
- Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of Education and Yunnan Province, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650091, People's Republic of China
| | - Ling Jiang
- Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of Education and Yunnan Province, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650091, People's Republic of China
| | - Tie Liu
- Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of Education and Yunnan Province, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650091, People's Republic of China
| | - Mei-Zheng Wei
- Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of Education and Yunnan Province, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650091, People's Republic of China
| | - Ma-Long Qin
- Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of Education and Yunnan Province, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650091, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Dong Luo
- Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of Education and Yunnan Province, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650091, People's Republic of China; State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, People's Republic of China.
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Gutiérrez-Pacheco MM, Torres-Moreno H, Flores-Lopez ML, Velázquez Guadarrama N, Ayala-Zavala JF, Ortega-Ramírez LA, López-Romero JC. Mechanisms and Applications of Citral's Antimicrobial Properties in Food Preservation and Pharmaceuticals Formulations. Antibiotics (Basel) 2023; 12:1608. [PMID: 37998810 PMCID: PMC10668791 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics12111608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2023] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/04/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Citral is a monoterpene constituted by two isomers known as neral and geranial. It is present in different plant sources and recognized as safe (GRAS) by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In recent years, investigations have demonstrated that this compound exhibited several biological activities, such as antibacterial, antifungal, antibiofilm, antiparasitic, antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties, by in vitro and in vivo assays. Additionally, when incorporated into different food matrices, citral can reduce the microbial load of pathogenic microorganisms and extend the shelf life. This compound has acceptable drug-likeness properties and does not present any violations of Lipinski's rules, which could be used for drug development. The above shows that citral could be a compound of interest for developing food additives to extend the shelf life of animal and vegetable origin foods and develop pharmaceutical products.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Heriberto Torres-Moreno
- Departamento de Ciencias Químico-Biológicas y Agropecuarias, Universidad de Sonora, H. Caborca 83600, Sonora, Mexico;
| | - María Liliana Flores-Lopez
- Centro de Investigación e Innovación Científica y Tecnológica, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Saltillo 25070, Coahuila, Mexico;
| | - Norma Velázquez Guadarrama
- Laboratorio de Investigación en Enfermedades Infecciosas, Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez, Mexico City 06720, Mexico;
| | - J. Fernando Ayala-Zavala
- Coordinación de Tecnología de Alimentos de Origen Vegetal, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A. C. Carretera Gustavo Astiazarán Rosas No. 46, Colonia la Victoria, Hermosillo 83304, Sonora, Mexico;
| | - Luis Alberto Ortega-Ramírez
- Departamento de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Estatal de Sonora, San Luis Río Colorado 83430, Sonora, Mexico;
| | - Julio César López-Romero
- Departamento de Ciencias Químico-Biológicas y Agropecuarias, Universidad de Sonora, H. Caborca 83600, Sonora, Mexico;
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Zhang A, Wu H, Chen X, Chen Z, Pan Y, Qu W, Hao H, Chen D, Xie S. Targeting and arginine-driven synergizing photodynamic therapy with nutritional immunotherapy nanosystems for combating MRSA biofilms. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadg9116. [PMID: 37450586 PMCID: PMC10348676 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adg9116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
The resistance and immune escape of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) biofilms cause recalcitrant infections. Here, we design a targeting and synergizing cascade PDT with nutritional immunotherapy nanosystems (Arg-PCN@Gel) containing PCN-224 as PDT platform for providing reactive oxygen species (ROS), incorporating arginine (Arg) as nitric oxide (NO) donor to cascade with ROS to produce more lethal ONOO- and promote immune response, and coating with gelatin as targeting agent and persistent Arg provider. The nanosystems adhered to the autolysin of MRSA and inhibited Arg metabolism by down-regulating icdA and icaA. It suppressed polysaccharide intercellular adhesin and extracellular DNA synthesis to prevent biofilm formation. The NO broke mature biofilms and helped ROS and ONOO- penetrate into biofilms to inactivate internal MRSA. Arg-PCN@Gel drove Arg to enhance immunity via inducible NO synthase/NO axis and arginase/polyamine axis and achieve efficient target treatment in MRSA biofilm infections. The targeting and cascading PDT synergized with nutritional immunotherapy provide an effective promising strategy for biofilm-associated infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aoxue Zhang
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Hao Wu
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Xin Chen
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Zhen Chen
- Key Laboratory of Prevention & Control for African Swine Fever and Other Major Pig Diseases, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs,Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Yuanhu Pan
- Key Laboratory of Prevention & Control for African Swine Fever and Other Major Pig Diseases, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs,Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Wei Qu
- Key Laboratory of Prevention & Control for African Swine Fever and Other Major Pig Diseases, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs,Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Haihong Hao
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Dongmei Chen
- Key Laboratory of Prevention & Control for African Swine Fever and Other Major Pig Diseases, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs,Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Shuyu Xie
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention & Control for African Swine Fever and Other Major Pig Diseases, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs,Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
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Leucyl-tRNA Synthetase Inhibitor, D-Norvaline, in Combination with Oxacillin, Is Effective against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022; 11:antibiotics11050683. [PMID: 35625327 PMCID: PMC9137938 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11050683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a pathogenic bacterium that causes severe diseases in humans. For decades, MRSA has acquired substantial resistance against conventional antibiotics through regulatory adaptation, thereby posing a challenge for treating MRSA infection. One of the emerging strategies to combat MRSA is the combinatory use of antibacterial agents. Based on the dramatic change in phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) composition of MRSA in previous results, this study investigated branched-chain amino acid derivatives (precursors of fatty acid synthesis of cell membrane) and discovered the antimicrobial potency of D-norvaline. The compound, which can act synergistically with oxacillin, is among the three leucine-tRNA synthetase inhibitors with high potency to inhibit MRSA cell growth and biofilm formation. PLFA analysis and membrane properties revealed that D-norvaline decreased the overall amount of PLFA, increasing the fluidity and decreasing the hydrophobicity of the bacterial cell membrane. Additionally, we observed genetic differences to explore the response to D-norvaline. Furthermore, deletion mutants and clinically isolated MRSA strains were treated with D-norvaline. The study revealed that D-norvaline, with low concentrations of oxacillin, was effective in killing several MRSA strains. In summary, our findings provide a new combination of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase inhibitor D-norvaline and oxacillin, which is effective against MRSA.
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Lakshmi SA, Prasath KG, Tamilmuhilan K, Srivathsan A, Shafreen RMB, Kasthuri T, Pandian SK. Suppression of Thiol-Dependent Antioxidant System and Stress Response in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus by Docosanol: Explication Through Proteome Investigation. Mol Biotechnol 2022; 64:575-589. [PMID: 35018617 DOI: 10.1007/s12033-021-00434-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The present study was aimed to investigate the effect of docosanol on the protein expression profile of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Thus, two-dimensional gel electrophoresis coupled with MALDI-TOF MS technique was utilized to identify the differentially regulated proteins in the presence of docosanol. A total of 947 protein spots were identified from the intracellular proteome of both control and docosanol treated samples among which 40 spots were differentially regulated with a fold change greater than 1.0. Prominently, the thiol-dependent antioxidant system and stress response proteins are downregulated in MRSA, which are critical for survival during oxidative stress. In particular, docosanol downregulated the expression of Tpx, AhpC, BshC, BrxA, and YceI with a fold change of 1.4 (p = 0.02), 1.4 (p = 0.01), 1.6 (p = 0.002), 4.9 (p = 0.02), and 1.4 (p = 0.02), respectively. In addition, docosanol reduced the expression of proteins involved in purine metabolic pathways, biofilm growth cycle, and virulence factor production. Altogether, these findings suggest that docosanol could efficiently target the antioxidant pathway by reducing the expression of bacillithiol and stress-associated proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selvaraj Alagu Lakshmi
- Department of Biotechnology, Alagappa University, Science Campus, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, 630003, India
| | - Krishnan Ganesh Prasath
- Department of Biotechnology, Alagappa University, Science Campus, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, 630003, India
- Department of Biotechnology, Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering, Sriperumbudur, Tamil Nadu, 602117, India
| | - Kannapiran Tamilmuhilan
- Department of Biotechnology, Alagappa University, Science Campus, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, 630003, India
| | - Adimoolam Srivathsan
- Department of Biotechnology, Alagappa University, Science Campus, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, 630003, India
| | - Raja Mohamed Beema Shafreen
- Department of Biotechnology, Alagappa University, Science Campus, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, 630003, India
- Department of Biotechnology, Dr. Umayal Ramanathan College for Women, Alagappapuram, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, 630003, India
| | - Thirupathi Kasthuri
- Department of Biotechnology, Alagappa University, Science Campus, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, 630003, India
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Tu H, Xu F, Cheng Y, Pan Q, Cai X, Wang S, Ge S, Cao M, Su D, Li Y. Proteomic profiling of the endogenous peptides of MRSA and MSSA. PeerJ 2021; 9:e12508. [PMID: 34900427 PMCID: PMC8627652 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.12508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive bacterium that can cause diverse skin and soft tissue infections. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) can cause more severe infections than methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA). Nevertheless, the physiological and metabolic regulation of MSSA and MRSA has not been well studied. In light of the increased interest in endogenous peptides and recognition of the important roles that they play, we studied the endogenous peptidome of MSSA and MRSA. We identified 1,065 endogenous peptides, among which 435 were differentially expressed (DE), with 292 MSSA-abundant endogenous peptides and 35 MRSA-abundant endogenous peptides. MSSA-abundant endogenous peptides have significantly enriched “VXXXK” motif of at the C-terminus. MSSA-abundant endogenous peptides are involved in penicillin-binding and immune responses, whereas MRSA-abundant endogenous peptides are associated with antibiotic resistance and increased toxicity. Our characterization of the peptidome of MSSA and MRSA provides a rich resource for future studies to explore the functional regulation of drug resistance in S. aureus and may also help elucidate the mechanisms of its pathogenicity and the development of treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haixia Tu
- Center of Pathology and Clinical Laboratory, Sir Run Run Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Fei Xu
- Blood Transfusion Department, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yiwei Cheng
- School of Basic Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Qianglong Pan
- Center of Pathology and Clinical Laboratory, Sir Run Run Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xiao Cai
- Center of Pathology and Clinical Laboratory, Sir Run Run Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Shouxing Wang
- Center of Pathology and Clinical Laboratory, Sir Run Run Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Shuting Ge
- School of Basic Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Min Cao
- Center of Pathology and Clinical Laboratory, Sir Run Run Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Dongming Su
- Center of Pathology and Clinical Laboratory, Sir Run Run Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yan Li
- Center of Pathology and Clinical Laboratory, Sir Run Run Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
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Citral modulates virulence factors in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Sci Rep 2021; 11:16482. [PMID: 34389776 PMCID: PMC8363631 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-95971-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is responsible for high morbidity and mortality rates. Citral has been studied in the pharmaceutical industry and has shown antimicrobial activity. This study aimed to analyze the antimicrobial activity of citral in inhibiting biofilm formation and modulating virulence genes, with the ultimate goal of finding a strategy for treating infections caused by MRSA strains. Citral showed antimicrobial activity against MRSA isolates with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values between 5 mg/mL (0.5%) and 40 mg/mL (4%), and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values between 10 mg/mL (1%) and 40 mg/mL (4%). The sub-inhibitory dose was 2.5 mg/mL (0.25%). Citral, in an antibiogram, modulated synergistically, antagonistically, or indifferent to the different antibiotics tested. Prior to evaluating the antibiofilm effects of citral, we classified the bacteria according to their biofilm production capacity. Citral showed greater efficacy in the initial stage, and there was a significant reduction in biofilm formation compared to the mature biofilm. qPCR was used to assess the modulation of virulence factor genes, and icaA underexpression was observed in isolates 20 and 48. For icaD, seg, and sei, an increase was observed in the expression of ATCC 33,591. No significant differences were found for eta and etb. Citral could be used as a supplement to conventional antibiotics for MRSA infections.
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Song X, Wang L, Liu T, Liu Y, Wu X, Liu L. Mandarin (Citrus reticulata L.) essential oil incorporated into chitosan nanoparticles: Characterization, anti-biofilm properties and application in pork preservation. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 185:620-628. [PMID: 34216663 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.06.195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 06/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Mandarin (Citrus reticulata L.) essential oil (MEO) reportedly displays excellent antimicrobial properties. In this study, MEO was loaded into chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs). The characteristics, antibacterial properties and benefit in pork preservation of MEO-CSNPs were evaluated. The MEO-CSNPs displayed an excellent encapsulation efficiency (EE) (67.32%-82.35%), the particle size values of 131.3 nm-161.9 nm, and the absolute zeta potential values above 30 mV. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) revealed that the MEO was incorporated into CSNPs without requiring a chemical reaction, the antibacterial activity of the MEO remained. Furthermore, the damage of MEO-chitosan nanoemulsions (MEO-CSs) to the cell membranes of Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Escherichia coli (E. coli) was confirmed by the change of bacterial cell morphology. The anti-biofilm assays verified that the MEO-CSs substantially inhibited biofilm formation and destroyed the mature biofilms. MEO-CSs were also applied to pork, proving a great potential for pork preservation. This study provides a potential approach for developing and utilizing MEO-CSs as natural antimicrobial agents in the food industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueying Song
- College of Food Engineering and Nutritional Science, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710119, China
| | - Lei Wang
- College of Food Engineering and Nutritional Science, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710119, China
| | - Ting Liu
- College of Food Engineering and Nutritional Science, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710119, China
| | - Yongfeng Liu
- College of Food Engineering and Nutritional Science, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710119, China
| | - Xiaoxia Wu
- College of Food Engineering and Nutritional Science, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710119, China
| | - Liu Liu
- College of Food Engineering and Nutritional Science, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710119, China.
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Lei T, Wang J, Liu Y, Chen P, Zhang Z, Zhang X, Guo W, Wang X, Li Q, Du H. Proteomic profile of human stem cells from dental pulp and periodontal ligament. J Proteomics 2021; 245:104280. [PMID: 34089896 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2021.104280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Revised: 04/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Background The study of molecular profiling of dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) and periodontal ligament stem cells (PDLSCs) contributes to understanding the high proliferation ability and multi-lineage differentiation potential. Objectives The aim of the study was to compare the protein abundance and specific markers of DPSCs and PDLSCs by protein profiles. Material and methods The DPSCs and PDLSCs extracted from the same tooth were lysed with 3 biological replicates and the protein was collected. Two-dimensional electrophoresis technology and TMT proteomics were used to separate and identify proteins. The data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD021997. The RT-qPCR detection of mRNA expression revealed a special marker for distinguishing two kinds of dental stem cells. Results Compared with PDLSCs, 962 differential proteins (DAPs) were up-regulated, and 127 were down-regulated in DPSCs. In the up-regulated DAPs, two high-scoring sub-networks were detected for neural-related molecules, which encode cell vesicle transport and mitochondrial energy transfer to regulate cell proliferation and secretion factors. A large number of cell adhesion molecules were distinguished among the highly expressed molecules of PDLSCs, supporting that stem cells provide cell attachment functions. It was interpreted ENPL, HS90A and HS90B were highly expressed in DPSCs, while CKB was highly abundant in PDLSCs. Another cell group confirmed that these molecules can be used as special biomarkers to identify and distinguish between DPSCs and PDLSCs. Conclusions This study can promote the basic research and clinical application of dental stem cells. Significance The high-throughput protein profiles were tested by combining two-dimensional gel proteomics and TMT-based proteomics. The proteomics of DPSCs and PDLSCs without individual difference demonstrated an accurate and comprehensive molecular expression profiles and interpretation of neural application potential, this study promotes the basic research of dental stem cells and clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tong Lei
- Daxing Research Institute, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China; 112 Lab, School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Jian Wang
- 112 Lab, School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yanyan Liu
- 112 Lab, School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Peng Chen
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Basic Research on Prevention and Treatment for Major Diseases, Experimental Research Center, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Dongcheng District, Beijing 100700, China
| | - Zhihui Zhang
- Stomatology Department, Peking University Third Hospital, 49 North Garden Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xiaoshuang Zhang
- Daxing Research Institute, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China; 112 Lab, School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Wenhuan Guo
- Daxing Research Institute, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China; 112 Lab, School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Xiao Wang
- Stomatology Department, Peking University Third Hospital, 49 North Garden Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100191, China.
| | - Quanhai Li
- Cell Therapy Laboratory, The First Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050031, China; Department of Immunology, Basic Medical College, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, China.
| | - Hongwu Du
- Daxing Research Institute, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China; 112 Lab, School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China.
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Antibiotic Resistance Crisis: An Update on Antagonistic Interactions between Probiotics and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Curr Microbiol 2021; 78:2194-2211. [PMID: 33881575 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-021-02442-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) havoc is a global multifaceted crisis endowing a significant challenge for the successful eradication of devastating pathogens. Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an enduring superbug involved in causing devastating infections. Although MRSA is a frequent colonizer of human skin, wound, and anterior nares, the intestinal colonization of MRSA has greatly increased the risk of inducing MRSA-associated colitis besides creating a conducive environment for horizontal transfer of resistant genes to commensal microbes. On the other hand, staphylococcal resistance to last-resort antibiotics has urged the development of novel antimicrobial agents for the effective decolonization of MRSA. In response, probiotics and their metabolites (postbiotics) have been proposed as the adjunct therapeutic avenues. Probiotics exhibit a multitude of anti-MRSA actions (anti-bacterial, anti-biofilm, anti-virulence, anti-drug resistance, co-aggregation, and anti-quorum sensing) through the production of numerous antagonistic compounds such as organic acids, hydrogen peroxide, low molecular weight compounds, biosurfactants, bacteriocins, and bacteriocins like inhibitory substances. Besides, probiotics stabilize the epithelial barrier function and positively modulate the host immune system via regulating various signal transduction mechanisms. Preclinical and human intervention studies have suggested that probiotics outcompete with MRSA by exhibiting anti-colonization mechanisms via protective, competitive, and displacement mode. In this review, we aim to highlight the dynamics of MRSA associated virulence and drug resistance properties, and how probiotics antagonize MRSA through various mechanism of action.
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Yuan L, Mgomi FC, Xu Z, Wang N, He G, Yang Z. Understanding of food biofilms by the application of omics techniques. Future Microbiol 2021; 16:257-269. [PMID: 33595346 DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2020-0218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Biofilms constitute a protective barrier for foodborne pathogens to survive under stressful food processing conditions. Therefore, studies into the development and control of biofilms by novel techniques are vital for the food industry. In recent years, foodomics techniques have been developed for biofilm studies, which contributed to a better understanding of biofilm behavior, physiology, composition, as well as their response to antibiofilm methods at different molecular levels including genes, RNA, proteins and metabolic metabolites. Throughout this review, the main studies where foodomics tools used to explore the mechanisms for biofilm formation, dispersal and elimination were reviewed. The data summarized from relevant studies are important to design novel and appropriate biofilm elimination methods for enhancing food safety at any point of food processing lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Yuan
- College of Food Science & Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225127, China.,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Microbiology & Enzyme Engineering, Xiamen, 361021, China
| | - Fedrick C Mgomi
- College of Food Science & Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225127, China
| | - Zhenbo Xu
- School of Food Science & Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Ni Wang
- College of Biosystems Engineering & Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Guoqing He
- College of Biosystems Engineering & Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Zhenquan Yang
- College of Food Science & Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225127, China
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12
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Van Dyck K, Pinto RM, Pully D, Van Dijck P. Microbial Interkingdom Biofilms and the Quest for Novel Therapeutic Strategies. Microorganisms 2021; 9:412. [PMID: 33671126 PMCID: PMC7921918 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9020412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Fungal and bacterial species interact with each other within polymicrobial biofilm communities in various niches of the human body. Interactions between these species can greatly affect human health and disease. Diseases caused by polymicrobial biofilms pose a major challenge in clinical settings because of their enhanced virulence and increased drug tolerance. Therefore, different approaches are being explored to treat fungal-bacterial biofilm infections. This review focuses on the main mechanisms involved in polymicrobial drug tolerance and the implications of the polymicrobial nature for the therapeutic treatment by highlighting clinically relevant fungal-bacterial interactions. Furthermore, innovative treatment strategies which specifically target polymicrobial biofilms are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrien Van Dyck
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute of Botany and Microbiology, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium; (K.V.D.); (R.M.P.); (D.P.)
- VIB—KU Leuven Center for Microbiology, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Rita M. Pinto
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute of Botany and Microbiology, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium; (K.V.D.); (R.M.P.); (D.P.)
- VIB—KU Leuven Center for Microbiology, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Durgasruthi Pully
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute of Botany and Microbiology, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium; (K.V.D.); (R.M.P.); (D.P.)
| | - Patrick Van Dijck
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute of Botany and Microbiology, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium; (K.V.D.); (R.M.P.); (D.P.)
- VIB—KU Leuven Center for Microbiology, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
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13
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Gao S, Liu G, Li J, Chen J, Li L, Li Z, Zhang X, Zhang S, Thorne RF, Zhang S. Antimicrobial Activity of Lemongrass Essential Oil ( Cymbopogon flexuosus) and Its Active Component Citral Against Dual-Species Biofilms of Staphylococcus aureus and Candida Species. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:603858. [PMID: 33415085 PMCID: PMC7783362 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.603858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Compared to mono-species biofilm, biofilms formed by cross-kingdom pathogens are more refractory to conventional antibiotics, thus complicating clinical treatment and causing significant morbidity. Lemongrass essential oil and its bioactive component citral were previously demonstrated to possess strong antimicrobial efficacy against pathogenic bacteria and fungi. However, their effects on polymicrobial biofilms remain to be determined. In this study, the efficacy of lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) essential oil and its bioactive part citral against dual-species biofilms formed by Staphylococcus aureus and Candida species was evaluated in vitro. Biofilm staining and viability test showed both lemongrass essential oil and citral were able to reduce biofilm biomass and cell viability of each species in the biofilm. Microscopic examinations showed these agents interfered with adhesive characteristics of each species and disrupted biofilm matrix through counteracting nucleic acids, proteins and carbohydrates in the biofilm. Moreover, transcriptional analyses indicated citral downregulated hyphal adhesins and virulent factors of Candida albicans, while also reducing expression of genes involved in quorum sensing, peptidoglycan and fatty acids biosynthesis of S. aureus. Taken together, our results demonstrate the potential of lemongrass essential oil and citral as promising agents against polymicrobial biofilms as well as the underlying mechanisms of their activity in this setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanjun Gao
- Microbiome Laboratory, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Guangzhi Liu
- Microbiome Laboratory, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jianguo Li
- Department of Dermatology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jing Chen
- Microbiome Laboratory, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Lina Li
- Department of Dermatology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Zhen Li
- Microbiome Laboratory, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xiulei Zhang
- Microbiome Laboratory, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Shoumin Zhang
- Department of Dermatology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Rick Francis Thorne
- Translational Research Institute of Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China.,Academy of Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China.,School of Environmental & Life Sciences, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Shuzhen Zhang
- Microbiome Laboratory, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China.,Department of Dermatology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
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14
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Antibiofilm and antivirulence efficacy of myrtenol enhances the antibiotic susceptibility of Acinetobacter baumannii. Sci Rep 2020; 10:21975. [PMID: 33319862 PMCID: PMC7738676 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-79128-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Acinetobacter baumannii (AB) is rising as a human pathogen of critical priority worldwide as it is the leading cause of chronic opportunistic infections in healthcare settings and the condition is ineradicable with antibiotic therapy. AB possesses the ability to form biofilm on abiotic as well as biotic surfaces which plays a major role in its pathogenesis and resistance in clinical settings. Hence, the demand for an alternative therapy to combat the biofilm-associated infections is increasing. The present study explored the antibiofilm potential of myrtenol, a bicyclic monoterpene present in various plants against reference and clinical strains of AB. Myrtenol (200 μg/mL) exhibited a strong antibiofilm activity without exerting any harmful effect on growth and metabolic viability of AB strains. Microscopic analyses confirmed the reduction in the biofilm thickness and surface coverage upon myrtenol treatment. Especially, myrtenol was found to be effective in disrupting the mature biofilms of tested AB strains. Furthermore, myrtenol inhibited the biofilm-associated virulence factors of AB strains such as extracellular polysaccharide, cell surface hydrophobicity, oxidant resistance, swarming and twitching motility. Transcriptional analysis unveiled the suppression of the biofilm-associated genes such as bfmR, csuA/B, bap, ompA, pgaA, pgaC, and katE by myrtenol. Notably, myrtenol improved the susceptibility of AB strains towards conventional antibiotics such as amikacin, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin and trimethoprim. Thus, the present study demonstrates the therapeutic potential of myrtenol against biofilm-associated infections of AB.
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15
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Selvaraj A, Valliammai A, Muthuramalingam P, Priya A, Suba M, Ramesh M, Karutha Pandian S. Carvacrol Targets SarA and CrtM of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus to Mitigate Biofilm Formation and Staphyloxanthin Synthesis: An In Vitro and In Vivo Approach. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:31100-31114. [PMID: 33324819 PMCID: PMC7726784 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c04252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Carvacrol is an essential oil traditionally used in culinary processes as spice due to its aromatic nature and also known for various biological activities. In the present study, the antivirulence efficacy of carvacrol against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is explored. MRSA is an opportunistic pathogen capable of causing various superficial and systemic infections in humans. Biofilm formation and virulence factors of MRSA are responsible for its pathogenesis and resistance. Hence, the aim of this study was to explore the antibiofilm and antivirulence efficacy of carvacrol against MRSA. Carvacrol at 75 μg/mL inhibited MRSA biofilm by 93%, and it also decreased the biofilm formation on polystyrene and glass surfaces. Further, microscopic analyses revealed the reduction in microcolony formation and collapsed structure of biofilm upon carvacrol treatment. The growth curve analysis and the Alamar blue assay showed the nonfatal effect of carvacrol on MRSA. Further, carvacrol significantly reduced the production of MRSA biofilm-associated slime and extracellular polysaccharide. In addition, carvacrol strongly inhibited the antioxidant pigment staphyloxanthin and its intermediates' synthesis in MRSA. Inhibition of biofilm and staphyloxanthin by carvacrol enhanced the susceptibility of MRSA to oxidants and healthy human blood. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analysis unveiled the downregulation of sarA-mediated biofilm gene expression and staphyloxanthin-associated crtM gene expression. The sarA-dependent antibiofilm potential of carvacrol was validated using S. aureus Newman wild-type and isogenic ΔsarA strains. In silico molecular docking analysis showed the high binding efficacy of carvacrol with staphylococcal accessory regulator A (SarA) and 4,4'-diapophytoene synthase (CrtM) when compared to positive controls. Furthermore, the in vivo efficacy of carvacrol against MRSA infection was demonstrated using the model organism Galleria mellonella. The results revealed the nontoxic nature of carvacrol to the larvae and the rescuing potential of carvacrol against MRSA infection. Finally, the current study reveals the potential of carvacrol in inhibiting the biofilm formation and staphyloxanthin synthesis of MRSA by targeting the global regulator SarA and a novel antivirulence target CrtM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthonymuthu Selvaraj
- Department
of Biotechnology, Alagappa University, Karaikudi 630003, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Alaguvel Valliammai
- Department
of Biotechnology, Alagappa University, Karaikudi 630003, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Pandiyan Muthuramalingam
- Department
of Biotechnology, Alagappa University, Karaikudi 630003, Tamil Nadu, India
- Department
of Systems Biology, Science Research Centre, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, South Korea
| | - Arumugam Priya
- Department
of Biotechnology, Alagappa University, Karaikudi 630003, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Manokaran Suba
- Department
of Biotechnology, Alagappa University, Karaikudi 630003, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Manikandan Ramesh
- Department
of Biotechnology, Alagappa University, Karaikudi 630003, Tamil Nadu, India
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Proteomic and Systematic Functional Profiling Unveils Citral Targeting Antibiotic Resistance, Antioxidant Defense, and Biofilm-Associated Two-Component Systems of Acinetobacter baumannii To Encumber Biofilm and Virulence Traits. mSystems 2020; 5:5/6/e00986-20. [PMID: 33203690 PMCID: PMC7677002 DOI: 10.1128/msystems.00986-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Acinetobacter baumannii is a nosocomial-infection-causing bacterium and also possesses multidrug resistance to a wide range of conventional antibiotics. The biofilm-forming ability of A. baumannii plays a major role in its resistance and persistence. There is an alarming need for novel treatment strategies to control A. baumannii biofilm-associated issues. The present study demonstrated the strong antibiofilm and antivirulence efficacy of citral against A. baumannii. In addition, proteomic analysis revealed the multitarget potential of citral against A. baumannii. Furthermore, citral treatment enhances the susceptibility of A. baumannii to the host innate immune system and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Cytotoxicity analysis revealed the nonfatal effect of citral on human PBMCs. Therefore, citral could be the safest therapeutic compound and can be taken for further clinical evaluation for the treatment of biofilm-associated infections by A. baumannii. Acinetobacter baumannii has been reported as a multidrug-resistant bacterium due to biofilms and antimicrobial resistance mechanisms. Hence, novel therapeutic strategies are necessary to overcome A. baumannii infections. This study revealed that citral at 200 μg/ml attenuated A. baumannii biofilms by up to 90% without affecting viability. Furthermore, microscopic analyses and in vitro assays confirmed the antibiofilm efficacy of citral. The global effect of citral on A. baumannii was evaluated by proteomic, transcriptional, and in silico approaches. Two-dimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization–time of flight/time of flight (MALDI-TOF/TOF) analyses were used to assess the effect of citral on the A. baumannii cellular proteome. Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) analysis was done to validate the proteomic data and identify the differentially expressed A. baumannii genes. Protein-protein interactions, gene enrichment, and comparative gene network analyses were performed to explore the interactions and functional attributes of differentially expressed proteins of A. baumannii. Global omics-based analyses revealed that citral targeted various mechanisms such as biofilm formation, antibiotic resistance, antioxidant defense, iron acquisition, and type II and type IV secretion systems. The results of antioxidant analyses and antibiotic sensitivity, blood survival, lipase, and hemolysis assays validated the proteomic results. Cytotoxicity analysis showed a nontoxic effect of citral on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Overall, the current study unveiled that citral has multitarget efficacy to inhibit the biofilm formation and virulence of A. baumannii. IMPORTANCEAcinetobacter baumannii is a nosocomial-infection-causing bacterium and also possesses multidrug resistance to a wide range of conventional antibiotics. The biofilm-forming ability of A. baumannii plays a major role in its resistance and persistence. There is an alarming need for novel treatment strategies to control A. baumannii biofilm-associated issues. The present study demonstrated the strong antibiofilm and antivirulence efficacy of citral against A. baumannii. In addition, proteomic analysis revealed the multitarget potential of citral against A. baumannii. Furthermore, citral treatment enhances the susceptibility of A. baumannii to the host innate immune system and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Cytotoxicity analysis revealed the nonfatal effect of citral on human PBMCs. Therefore, citral could be the safest therapeutic compound and can be taken for further clinical evaluation for the treatment of biofilm-associated infections by A. baumannii.
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