Dual cancer targeting using estrogen functionalized chitosan nanoparticles loaded with doxorubicin-estrone conjugate: A quality by design approach

Chitosan Nanoparticles for Targeted Cancer Therapy: A Review of Stimuli-Responsive, Passive, and Active Targeting Strategies

Despite all major advancements in drug discovery and development in the pharmaceutical industry, cancer is still one of the most arduous challenges for the scientific community. The implications of nanotechnology have certainly resolved major issues related to conventional anticancer modalities; however, the undesired recognition of nanoparticles (NPs) by the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS), their poor stability in biological fluids, premature release of payload, and low biocompatibility have restricted their clinical translation. In recent decades, chitosan (CS)-based nanodelivery systems (eg, polymeric NPs, micelles, liposomes, dendrimers, conjugates, solid lipid nanoparticles, etc.) have attained promising recognition from researchers for improving the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of chemotherapeutics. However, the specialty of this review is to mainly focus on and critically discuss the targeting potential of various CS-based NPs for treatment of different types of cancer. Based on their delivery mechanisms, we classified CS-based NPs into stimuli-responsive, passive, or active targeting nanosystems. Moreover, various functionalization strategies (eg, grafting with polyethylene glycol (PEG), hydrophobic substitution, tethering of stimuli-responsive linkers, and conjugation of targeting ligands) adapted to the architecture of CS-NPs for target-specific delivery of chemotherapeutics have also been considered. Nevertheless, CS-NPs based therapeutics hold great promise for improving therapeutic outcomes while mitigating the off-target effects of chemotherapeutics, a long-term safety profile and clinical testing in humans are warranted for their successful clinical translation.

Aptamer as a targeted approach towards treatment of breast cancer

Aptamers, a novel type of targeted ligand used in drug delivery, have quickly gained popularity due to their high target specificity and affinity. Different aptamer-mediated drug delivery systems, such as aptamer-drug conjugate (ApDC), aptamer-siRNA, and aptamer-functionalised nanoparticle systems, are currently being developed for the successful treatment of cancer based on the excellent properties of aptamers. These systems can decrease potential toxicity and enhance therapeutic efficacy by targeting the drug moiety. In this review, we provide an overview of recent developments in aptamer-mediated delivery systems for cancer therapy, specifically for breast cancer, and talk about the potential applications and current issues of novel aptamer-based techniques. This study in aptamer technology for breast cancer therapy highlights key aptamers targeting well-established biomarkers such as HER2, oestrogen receptor, and progesterone receptor. Additionally, we explore the potential of aptamers in overcoming various challenges such as drug resistance and improving the delivery of therapeutic agents. This review aims to provide a deeper understanding of the present aptamer-based targeted delivery applications through in-depth analysis to increase efficacy and create new therapeutic approaches that may ultimately lead to better treatment outcomes for cancer patients.

Quality by Design Assisted Development of Luliconazole Transethosomes in Gel for the Management of Candida albicans Infection

The objective of this study was to develop and evaluate a novel vesicular formulation of luliconazole (LUL) for the management of Candida albicans infection through a topical route. LUL-loaded transethosomes (LUL-TE) were prepared by the film hydration method and various independent and dependent variables were optimized using the Box-Behnken design. Selected critical material attributes were the content of phospholipids (X1), concentration of ethanol (X2), and amount of sodium cholate (X3). Formulated LUL-TE were characterized for percent entrapment efficiency, percent drug loading, vesicle size, and polydispersity index (PDI) and were incorporated into the carbomer gel base and further evaluated for gel characterizations. The prepared transethosomal gel (LUL-TE-CHG) was evaluated for pH, spreadability, viscosity, antifungal activity, and in vitro study. From the observed results, it was evident that the prepared LUL-TE-CHG was in the desired pH (6.2 ± 0.45), spreadability [8.3 ± 0.42 g/(cm·s)], viscosity (236.1-19.2.26 mPa·s), nanovesicle size (252 ± 9.82), entrapment efficiency (85% ± 5.24%), zeta potential (-34.05 ± 3.52 mV), and PDI (0.233 ± 0.002). The zone of inhibition results suggested that the LUL-TE-CHG formulation has the highest antifungal activity, that is, 5.83 ± 0.15 mm3. The in vitro results showed that drug release within 2 h was 18.1% ± 2.0% and after that sustained release action, 83.2% ± 1.7% within 8 h. Finally, to confirm the therapeutic efficacy of the developed formulation, fungal infection was induced by using C. albicans in Wistar rats. In vivo, skin irritation study and histopathology studies were performed in the disease-induced model. Animal experiments revealed that LUL-TE-CHG has significantly improved the diseased condition in Wistar rats. The results observed from the skin permeation and skin deposition profile ensure that the prepared novel LUL-loaded TE system had a higher permeation rate and increased retention time compared with LUL-CHG. The hydrogel incorporated with LUL could be a novel approach with safe and effective fungal treatment.

Emerging targeted therapeutic strategies for the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), a subtype of breast cancer that lacks expression of oestrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER-2), has clinical features including a high degree of invasiveness, an elevated risk of metastasis, tendency to relapse, and poor prognosis. It constitutes around 10-15% of all breast cancer, and having heredity of BRCA1 mutated breast cancer could be a reason for the occurrence of TNBC in women. Overexpression of cellular and molecular targets, i.e. CD44 receptor, EGFR receptor, Folate receptor, Transferrin receptor, VEGF receptor, and Androgen receptor, have emerged as promising targets for treating TNBC. Signalling pathways such as Notch signalling and PI3K/AKT/mTOR also play a significant role in carrying out and managing crucial pro-survival and pro-growth cellular processes that can be utilised for targeted therapy against triple-negative breast cancer. This review sheds light on various targeting strategies, including cellular and molecular targets, signalling pathways, poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors, antibody-drug conjugates, and immune checkpoint inhibitors PARP, immunotherapy, ADCs have all found a place in the current TNBC therapeutic paradigm. The role of photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT) has also been explored briefly.

α-Tocopherol Polyethylene Glycol 1000 Succinate-Based Cationic Liposome for the Intracellular Delivery of Doxorubicin in MDA-MB-231 Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cell Line

Present research work reports the development of doxorubicin (DOX) loaded α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS)-coated cationic liposomes. The developed formulation was evaluated for its anticancer potential and intracellular uptake against the MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line. Moreover, hemocompatibility studies were also done on human blood red blood cells for the determination of blood compatibility. The prepared doxorubicin-loaded TPGS liposomes (DOX-LIPO-TPGS) and doxorubicin-loaded cationic liposomes (DOX-LIPO+-TPGS) reveal vesicle size (177.5 ± 2.5 and 201.7 ± 2.3 nm), polydispersity index (0.189 ± 0.01 and 0.218 ± 0.02), zeta potential (-36.9 ± 0.7 and 42 ± 0.9 mv), and % entrapment efficiency (65.88% ± 3.7% and 74.5% ± 3.9%). Furthermore, in vitro, drug release kinetics of the drug alone and drug from formulation shows sustained release behavior of developed formulation with 99.98% in 12 h and 80.98% release of the drug in 72 h, respectively. In addition, cytotoxicity studies and cellular DOX uptake on the MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line depict higher cytotoxic and drug uptake potential with better hemocompatibility of DOX-LIPO+-TPGS with respect to DOX. The data from the study revealed that TPGS plays an important role in enhancing the formulation's quality attributes like stability, drug release, cytotoxicity, and hemocompatibility behavior. This may serve that TPGS-coated cationic liposome as a vital candidate for the treatment of cancer and drug delivery in case of breast cancer.

Functionalized chitosan for cancer nano drug delivery

Chitosan is a biotechnological derivative of chitin receiving a widespread pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. It can be used to encapsulate and deliver cancer therapeutics with inherent pH-dependent solubility to confer drug targeting at tumour microenvironment and anti-cancer activity synergizing cancer cytotoxic drug actions. To further reduce the off-target and by-stander adverse effects of drugs, a high targeted drug delivery efficiency at the lowest possible drug doses is clinically required. The chitosan has been functionalized with covalent conjugates or complexes and processed into nanoparticles to encapsulate and control drug release, to avoid premature drug clearance, to deliver drugs passively and actively to cancer site at tissue, cell or subcellular levels, and to promote cancer cell uptake of nanoparticles through membrane permeabilization at higher specificity and scale. Nanomedicine developed using functionalized chitosan translates to significant preclinical improvements. Future challenges related to nanotoxicity, manufacturability, selection precision of conjugates and complexes as a function of cancer omics and their biological responses from administration site to cancer target need critical assessments.

Multi-functional chitosan-based nanoparticles for drug delivery: Recent advanced insight into cancer therapy

Cancer therapy continues to be a major global concern, with conventional treatments suffering from low efficacy, untargeted drug delivery, and severe side effects. Recent research in nanomedicine suggests that nanoparticles' unique physicochemical properties can be leveraged to surmount the limitations of conventional cancer treatment. Chitosan-based nanoparticles have gained significant attention due to their high drug-carrying capacity, non-toxicity, biocompatibility, and long circulation time. Chitosan is utilized in cancer therapies as a carrier to accurately deliver active ingredients to tumor sites. This review focuses on clinical studies and current market offerings of anticancer drugs. The unique nature of tumor microenvironments presents new opportunities for the development of smart drug delivery systems, and this review explores the design and preparation of chitosan-based smart nanoparticles. Further, we discuss the therapeutic efficacies of these nanoparticles based on various in vitro and in vivo findings. Finally, we present a forward-looking perspective on the challenges and prospects of chitosan-based nanoparticles in cancer therapy, intending to provide fresh ideas for advancing cancer treatment strategies.

Multifunctional nanotherapeutics for intracellular trafficking of doxorubicin against breast cancer

Aims: To develop an estrone-targeted d-alpha-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS)-based liposomal system for enhanced intracellular delivery of doxorubicin (DOX). Materials & methods: Zetasizer, transmission electron microscopy, energy dispersive x-ray, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, x-ray diffraction, confocal laser scanning microscopy and FACS analysis were used for formulation characterization and evaluation. Results: The DOX-LIPO-TPGS and DOX-LIPO-TPGS-estrone formulations had vesicle sizes (117.6 ± 3.51; 144 ± 5.00 nm), zeta potential (-36.4 ± 0.75; -35.8 ± 0.76), polydispersity index (0.123 ± 0.005; 0.169 ± 0.005) and percent entrapment efficiency (73.56 ± 3.55; 77.16 ± 3.83%) with improved cytotoxicity and cellular uptake, confirming the targeted potential of the developed formulations. Conclusion: The results suggest that the developed liposomal formulation with desired characteristics is potentially capable of nonimmunogenic, site-specific drug delivery to targeted cancer sites and reduced DOX-associated cardiac toxicity.

Chitosan-g-estrone Nanoparticles of Palbociclib Vanished Hypoxic Breast Tumor after Targeted Delivery: Development and Ultrasound/Photoacoustic Imaging

Breast cancer is the leading cause of death among women globally. Approximately 80% of all breast cancers diagnosed are overexpressed with estrogen receptors (ERs). In this study, we have developed an estrone (Egen)-grafted chitosan-based polymeric nanocarrier for the targeted delivery of palbociclib (PLB) to breast cancer. The nanoparticles (NPs) were prepared by solvent evaporation using the ionic gelation method and characterized for particle size, zeta potential, polydispersity, surface morphology, surface chemistry, drug entrapment efficiency, cytotoxicity assay, cellular uptake, and apoptosis study. The developed PLB-CS NPs and PLB-CS-g-Egen NPs had a particle size of 116.3 ± 1.53 nm and 141.6 ± 1.97 nm, respectively. The zeta potential of PLB-CS NPs and PLB-CS-g-Egen NPs was found to be 18.70 ± 0.416 mV and 12.45 ± 0.574 mV, respectively. The morphological analysis demonstrated that all NPs were spherical in shape and had a smooth surface. An in vitro cytotoxicity assay was performed in estrogen receptor (ER)-expressing MCF7 cells and T47D cells, which suggested that targeted NPs were 57.34- and 30.32-fold more cytotoxic compared to the pure PLB, respectively. Additionally, cell cycle analysis confirmed that cell cycle progression from the G1 into S phase was blocked more efficiently by targeted NPs compared to nontargeted NPs and PLB in MCF7 cells. In vivo pharmacokinetic studies demonstrated that entrapment of the PLB in the NPs improved the half-life and bioavailability by ∼2-3-fold. Further, ultrasound and photoacoustic imaging of DMBA induced breast cancer in the Sprague-Dawley (SD) rat showed that targeted NPs completely vanished breast tumor, reduced hypoxic tumor volume, and suppressed tumor angiogenesis more efficiently compared to the nontargeted NPs and free PLB. Further, in vitro hemocompatibility and histopathology studies suggested that NPs were biocompatible and safe for clinical use.

Doxorubicin Conjugates: An Efficient Approach for Enhanced Therapeutic Efficacy with Reduced Side Effects

Continuous drug delivery modification is the scientific approach and is a basic need for the efficient therapeutic efficacy of active drug molecules. Polymer-drug conjugates have long been a hallmark of the drug delivery sector, with various conjugates on the market or in clinical trials. Improved drug solubilization, extended blood circulation, decreased immunogenicity, controlled release behavior, and increased safety are the advantages of conjugating drugs to the polymeric carrier like polyethylene glycol (PEG). Polymer therapies have evolved over the last decade, resulting in polymer-drug conjugates with diverse topologies and chemical properties. Traditional nondegradable polymeric carriers like PEG and hydroxy propyl methacrylate have been clinically employed to fabricate polymer-drug conjugates. Still, functionalized polymer-drug conjugates are increasingly being used to increase localized drug delivery and ease of removal. Researchers have developed multifunctional carriers that can "see and treat" patients using medicinal and diagnostic chemicals. This review focused on the various conjugation approaches for attaching the doxorubicin to different polymers to achieve enhanced therapeutic efficacy, that is, increased bioavailability and reduced adverse effects.

DOPE/CHEMS-Based EGFR-Targeted Immunoliposomes for Docetaxel Delivery: Formulation Development, Physicochemical Characterization and Biological Evaluation on Prostate Cancer Cells

Docetaxel (DTX) is a non-selective antineoplastic agent with low solubility and a series of side effects. The technology of pH-sensitive and anti-epidermal growth factor receptor (anti-EGFR) immunoliposomes aims to increase the selective delivery of the drug in the acidic tumor environment to cells with EFGR overexpression. Thus, the study aimed to develop pH-sensitive liposomes based on DOPE (dioleoylphosphatidylethanolamine) and CHEMS (cholesteryl hemisuccinate), using a Box–Behnken factorial design. Furthermore, we aimed to conjugate the monoclonal antibody cetuximab onto liposomal surface, as well as to thoroughly characterize the nanosystems and evaluate them on prostate cancer cells. The liposomes prepared by hydration of the lipid film and optimized by the Box–Behnken factorial design showed a particle size of 107.2 ± 2.9 nm, a PDI of 0.213 ± 0.005, zeta potential of −21.9 ± 1.8 mV and an encapsulation efficiency of 88.65 ± 20.3%. Together, FTIR, DSC and DRX characterization demonstrated that the drug was properly encapsulated, with reduced drug crystallinity. Drug release was higher in acidic pH. The liposome conjugation with the anti-EGFR antibody cetuximab preserved the physicochemical characteristics and was successful. The liposome containing DTX reached an IC50 at a concentration of 65.74 nM in the PC3 cell line and 28.28 nM in the DU145 cell line. Immunoliposome, in turn, for PC3 cells reached an IC50 of 152.1 nM, and for the DU145 cell line, 12.60 nM, a considerable enhancement of cytotoxicity for the EGFR-positive cell line. Finally, the immunoliposome internalization was faster and greater than that of liposome in the DU145 cell line, with a higher EGFR overexpression. Thus, based on these results, it was possible to obtain a formulation with adequate characteristics of nanometric size, a high encapsulation of DTX and liposomes and particularly immunoliposomes containing DTX, which caused, as expected, a reduction in the viability of prostate cells, with high cellular internalization in EGFR overexpressing cells.

Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles with Optimized Parameters for Targeted Delivery of a Specific Anticancer Drug-A Comprehensive Review

Chitosan is a positively charged polysaccharide obtained through chitin deacetylation. It belongs to a group of biodegradable, bioavailable, and non-toxic materials of natural origin; thus, it is a promising matrix for creating delivery systems of different active agents. Recently, much attention has been paid to nanodelivery systems as carriers to enable better bioavailability, and thus higher efficiency of the loaded drug. The present review is focused on the progress in chitosan-based nanoparticles for the targeted delivery of antitumor drugs. The paper discusses literature reports from the last three years in which chitosan nanoparticles were applied as carriers for active substances used in antitumor therapy and potential new drugs with anticancer properties. Special attention was paid to the different treatments applied to increase the therapeutic effectiveness and minimize the side effects of a specific active substance.

Chitosan-based nanoscale systems for doxorubicin delivery: Exploring biomedical application in cancer therapy

Green chemistry has been a growing multidisciplinary field in recent years showing great promise in biomedical applications, especially for cancer therapy. Chitosan (CS) is an abundant biopolymer derived from chitin and is present in insects and fungi. This polysaccharide has favorable characteristics, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, and ease of modification by enzymes and chemicals. CS-based nanoparticles (CS-NPs) have shown potential in the treatment of cancer and other diseases, affording targeted delivery and overcoming drug resistance. The current review emphasizes on the application of CS-NPs for the delivery of a chemotherapeutic agent, doxorubicin (DOX), in cancer therapy as they promote internalization of DOX in cancer cells and prevent the activity of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) to reverse drug resistance. These nanoarchitectures can provide co-delivery of DOX with antitumor agents such as curcumin and cisplatin to induce synergistic cancer therapy. Furthermore, co-loading of DOX with siRNA, shRNA, and miRNA can suppress tumor progression and provide chemosensitivity. Various nanostructures, including lipid-, carbon-, polymeric- and metal-based nanoparticles, are modifiable with CS for DOX delivery, while functionalization of CS-NPs with ligands such as hyaluronic acid promotes selectivity toward tumor cells and prevents DOX resistance. The CS-NPs demonstrate high encapsulation efficiency and due to protonation of amine groups of CS, pH-sensitive release of DOX can occur. Furthermore, redox- and light-responsive CS-NPs have been prepared for DOX delivery in cancer treatment. Leveraging these characteristics and in view of the biocompatibility of CS-NPs, we expect to soon see significant progress towards clinical translation.

Development and Evaluation of a Novel Diammonium Glycyrrhizinate Phytosome for Nasal Vaccination

The objective of the present research was to formulate diammonium glycyrrhizinate (DG) into phytosomes (DG-P) to induce nasal immune responses and enhance absorption. Plackett- Burman design was used for process optimization, incorporating specific formulation and process variables to obtain the optimal parameters. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray power diffraction (P-XRD), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were used for characterization. The adjuvant activity of the DG-P was evaluated by using bone marrow dendritic cells. In vitro nasal mucosal permeation and in situ nasal perfusion were also investigated to evaluate nasal absorption. The DG phytosomes were in the size range of 20~30 nm and zeta-potential range of −30~−40 mV. DG-P demonstrated 4.2-fold increased solubility in n-octanol. Coculturing bone marrow dendritic cells with DG-P led to enhanced dendritic cell maturation. Apparent permeability coefficient of the phytosomal formulation was almost four times higher than that of free DG determined by ex vivo permeation studies on excised porcine mucosa. In situ nasal perfusion studies in rats demonstrated that the nasal absorption of DG-P was significantly higher than that of free DG. Conclusively, the results confirmed that DG-P have potential for use as an adjuvant for nasal vaccine.

Enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of nanoparticles for cancer treatment using versatile targeted strategies

Poor targeting of therapeutics leading to severe adverse effects on normal tissues is considered one of the obstacles in cancer therapy. To help overcome this, nanoscale drug delivery systems have provided an alternative avenue for improving the therapeutic potential of various agents and bioactive molecules through the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. Nanosystems with cancer-targeted ligands can achieve effective delivery to the tumor cells utilizing cell surface-specific receptors, the tumor vasculature and antigens with high accuracy and affinity. Additionally, stimuli-responsive nanoplatforms have also been considered as a promising and effective targeting strategy against tumors, as these nanoplatforms maintain their stealth feature under normal conditions, but upon homing in on cancerous lesions or their microenvironment, are responsive and release their cargoes. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the field of active targeting drug delivery systems and a number of stimuli-responsive release studies in the context of emerging nanoplatform development, and also discuss how this knowledge can contribute to further improvements in clinical practice.

Chitosan: A versatile bio-platform for breast cancer theranostics

Breast cancer is considered one of the utmost neoplastic diseases globally, with a high death rate of patients. Over the last decades, many approaches have been studied to early diagnose and treat it, such as chemotherapy, hormone therapy, immunotherapy, and MRI and biomarker tests; do not show the optimal efficacy. These existing approaches are accompanied by severe side effects, thus recognizing these challenges, a great effort has been done to find out the new remedies for breast cancer. Main finding: Nanotechnology opened a new horizon to the treatment of breast cancer. Many nanoparticulate platforms for the diagnosis of involved biomarkers and delivering antineoplastic drugs are under either clinical trials or just approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). It is well known that natural phytochemicals are successfully useful to treat breast cancer because these natural compounds are safer, available, cheaper, and have less toxic effects. Chitosan is a biocompatible and biodegradable polymer. Further, it has outstanding features, like chemical functional groups that can easily modify our interest with an exceptional choice of promising applications. Abundant studies were directed to assess the chitosan derivative-based nanoformulation's abilities in delivering varieties of drugs. However, the role of chitosan in diagnostics and theranostics not be obligated. The present servey will discuss the application of chitosan as an anticancer drug carrier such as tamoxifen, doxorubicin, paclitaxel, docetaxel, etc. and also, its role as a theranostics (i.e. photo-responsive and thermo-responsive) moieties. The therapeutic and theranostic potential of chitosan in cancer is promising and it seems that to have a good potential to get to the clinic.

Receptor-Mediated Targeted Delivery of Surface-ModifiedNanomedicine in Breast Cancer: Recent Update and Challenges

Breast cancer therapeutic intervention continues to be ambiguous owing to the lack of strategies for targeted transport and receptor-mediated uptake of drugs by cancer cells. In addition to this, sporadic tumor microenvironment, prominent restrictions with conventional chemotherapy, and multidrug-resistant mechanisms of breast cancer cells possess a big challenge to even otherwise optimal and efficacious breast cancer treatment strategies. Surface-modified nanomedicines can expedite the cellular uptake and delivery of drug-loaded nanoparticulate constructs through binding with specific receptors overexpressed aberrantly on the tumor cell. The present review elucidates the interesting yet challenging concept of targeted delivery approaches by exploiting different types of nanoparticulate systems with multiple targeting ligands to target overexpressed receptors of breast cancer cells. The therapeutic efficacy of these novel approaches in preclinical models is also comprehensively discussed in this review. It is concluded from critical analysis of related literature that insight into the translational gap between laboratories and clinical settings would provide the possible future directions to plug the loopholes in the process of development of these receptor-targeted nanomedicines for the treatment of breast cancer.

Recent advances in active targeting of nanomaterials for anticancer drug delivery

One of the challenges in cancer chemotherapy is the low target to non-target ratio of therapeutic agents which incur severe adverse effect on the healthy tissues. In this regard, nanomaterials have tremendous potential for impacting cancer therapy by altering the toxicity profile of the drug. Some of the striking advantages provided by the nanocarriers mediated targeted drug delivery are relatively high build-up of drug concentration at the tumor site, improved drug content in the formulation and enhanced colloidal stability. Further, nanocarriers with tumor-specific moieties can be targeted to the cancer cell through cell surface receptors, tumor antigens and tumor vasculatures with high affinity and accuracy. Moreover, it overcomes the bottleneck of aimless drug biodistribution, undesired toxicity and heavy dosage of administration. This review discusses the recent developments in active targeting of nanomaterials for anticancer drug delivery through cancer cell surface targeting, organelle specific targeting and tumor microenvironment targeting strategies. Special emphasis has been given towards cancer cell surface and organelle specific targeting as delivery of anticancer drugs through these routes have made paradigm change in cancer management. Further, the current challenges and future prospects of nanocarriers mediated active drug targeting are also demonstrated.

Degradation-Dependent Controlled Delivery of Doxorubicin by Glyoxal Cross-Linked Magnetic and Porous Chitosan Microspheres

Glyoxal cross-linked porous magnetic chitosan microspheres, GMS (∼170 μm size), with a tunable degradation profile were synthesized by a water-in-oil emulsion technique to accomplish controlled delivery of doxorubicin (DOX), a chemotherapeutic drug, to ensure prolonged chemotherapeutic effects. The GMS exhibit superparamagnetism with saturation magnetization, M s = 7.2 emu g-1. The in vitro swelling and degradation results demonstrate that a swelling plateau of GMS is reached at 24 h, while degradation can be modulated to begin at 96-120 h by formulating the cross-linked network using glyoxal. MTT assay, live/dead staining, and F-actin staining (actin/DAPI) validated the cytocompatibility of GMS, which further assured good drug loading capacity (35.8%). The release mechanism has two stages, initiated by diffusion-inspired release of DOX through the swollen polymer network (72 h), which is followed by a disintegration-tuned release profile (>96 h) conferring GMS a potential candidate for DOX delivery.

Development and Optimization of TPGS based Stealth Liposome of Doxorubicin Using Box-Behnken Design: Characterization, Hemocompatibility and Cytotoxicity Evaluation in Breast Cancer Cells

The present work reports the development of doxorubicin (DOX) encapsulated α-Tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) coated liposomal system (DOX-LIPO-TPGS) by quality by design (QbD) approach and evaluated for its anticancer and hemocompatibility potential. The screening and optimization of formulation variables were performed by the systematic design of experiments (DoE), using Taguchi and Box-Behnken Design (BBD) for their desired quality attributes. The QbD optimized DOX-LIPO (DOX encapsulated uncoated liposome) and DOX-LIPO-TPGS formulation showed nano-metric vesicle size (98.2 ± 3.1 &117.6 ± 3.5 nm) with favorable development parameters, i.e. PDI (0.262 ± 0.008 & 0.123 ± 0.005); ZP (-38.7 ± 0.5 &-36.4 ± 0.7 mV) and % EE (66.8 ± 3.3 & 73.5 ± 3.5%) respectively. The release kinetics parameters suggested, sustained release behavior of developed liposomal formulations (83.6 ± 2.8 & 69.8 ± 2.2% releases in 72 h respectively). Cytotoxicity (MTT assay) on the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line and Hemolysis assay on RBCs stipulates comparatively higher anticancer potential and better hemocompatibility of DOX-LIPO-TPGS with respect to DOX-LIPO and the plain DOX solution. The study concluded that the QbD based three levels by three factors BBD optimization could be utilized for obtaining liposomal formulations with desired quality attributes. TPGS could be set out as a vital additive to improve the various quality parameters including stealthing character, stability, kinetic release, cytotoxicity, and hemocompatibility of liposomal formulations. This may serve as a focal paradigm for using TPGS coated liposomes as anticancer drug delivery vehicle in normal and MDR carcinoma.