β-Glucan: A dual regulator of apoptosis and cell proliferation

Recent insights into glucans biosynthesis and engineering strategies in edible fungi

Fungal α/β-glucans have significant importance in cellular functions including cell wall structure, host-pathogen interactions and energy storage, and wide application in high-profile fields, including food, nutrition, and pharmaceuticals. Fungal species and their growth/developmental stages result in a diversity of glucan contents, structures and bioactivities. Substantial progresses have been made to elucidate the fine structures and functions, and reveal the potential molecular synthesis pathway of fungal α/β-glucans. Herein, we review the current knowledge about the biosynthetic machineries, including: precursor UDP-glucose synthesis, initiation, elongation/termination and remodeling of α/β-glucan chains, and molecular regulation to maximally produce glucans in edible fungi. This review would provide future perspectives to biosynthesize the targeted glucans and reveal the catalytic mechanism of enzymes associated with glucan synthesis, including: UDP-glucose pyrophosphate phosphorylases (UGP), glucan synthases, and glucanosyltransferases in edible fungi.

Effects of Dietary Yeast β-1,3/1,6-D-Glucan on Immunomodulation in RAW 264.7 Cells and Methotrexate-Treated Rat Models

A new subclass of nutraceuticals, called immunoceuticals, is dedicated to immunological regulation. Although yeast-derived β-1,3/1,6-D-glucan shows promise as an immunoceutical candidate, further studies are needed to define its precise immune-enhancing processes and to standardize its use. Following methotrexate (MTX)-induced immunosuppression in rats, we evaluated the immunomodulatory efficacy of a highly pure and standardized β-1,3/1,6-D-glucan sample (YBG) in RAW 264.7 macrophages. In in vitro and in vivo models, YBG demonstrated remarkable immunomodulatory effects, such as repair of immune organ damage, elevation of blood cytokine levels, and enhanced phagocytosis and nitric oxide production in RAW 264.7 cells. These results are consistent with the established immunostimulatory properties of β-glucan. It is noteworthy that this research indicates the potential of YBG as an immunomodulatory nutraceutical, as it is among the first to demonstrate immunological augmentation in an immunosuppression setting produced by MTX. Based on these observations, further investigation of YBG is warranted, particularly given its potential to emerge as a combination immunoceutical to mitigate immunosuppression and reduce the risk of infection in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients receiving long-term MTX therapy.

Evaluating the concentration dependent dual effects of β-Glucan on cancerous skin cells and mitochondria isolated from melanoma-induced animal model

INTRODUCTION

Melanoma is still one of the deadliest cancers whose prevalence has increased in recent decades. Today, many polysaccharides and their bioactive compounds have been of special importance in modern biotechnology. They have various biological and therapeutic properties. they can regulate and strengthen the immune system, lower blood pressure and cholesterol, and reduce bacterial and viral infections. According to studies, these compounds also have antitumor properties. we investigated the cytotoxic effects of β-Glucan obtained from solid-state fermentation (SSF) of edible medicinal mushroom Lentinus edodes on cancerous skin cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The mitochondria were isolated from melanoma cells via differential centrifugation and treated with various concentrations (30, 45, 60, 90, 120, and 240 µg/ml) of β-Glucan extract. Then, they were subjected to MTT, ROS, MMP decline, mitochondrial swelling, cytochrome c release, and flow cytometry assays.

RESULTS

The results of the MTT assay showed that IC50 of β-Glucan extract was 60 μg/ml, and it induced a selectively significant (P < 0.05) concentration-dependent decrease in the SDH activity in cancerous skin mitochondria. At higher concentrations, no such effect was observed. The ROS results also showed that 30, 45, and 60 µg/ml concentrations of β-Glucan extract significantly increased ROS. However, no such effect was observed at higher concentrations. MMP decline and the release of cytochrome c in cancer groups mitochondria and swelling were significantly increased at 30, 45, and 60 µg/ml compared to the control group. At higher concentrations, no such effect was observed. β-Glucan extract at 60 µg/ml concentration increased apoptosis on melanoma cells, while it had no effect on control non-tumour cells.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Based on these results, β-Glucan extract at 30, 45, and 60 µg/ml showed a cytotoxic effect, while no such effect was observed at higher concentrations. Overall, it seems that β-Glucan has antioxidant and free radical scavenging effects on cancer cells at higher concentrations.

β-glucan improves intestinal health of pearl gentian grouper via activation of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway

Our previous study has demonstrated that supplementation of yeast β-glucan improves intestinal health in pearl gentian grouper (Epinephelus lanceolatus♂ × Epinephelus fuscoguttatus♀), accompanied by the activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway. In this study, we investigated the effects of perturbing p38 MAPK activity using an inhibitor on the intestinal health of β-glucan-injected pearl gentian grouper to elucidate the potential molecular mechanism underlying the protective effects of β-glucan on the fish gut. The pearl gentian grouper was categorized into four groups: PBS injected (CD group), β-glucan injected at a dose of 80 mg/kg (βG group), p38 MAPK inhibitor SB203580 injected at a dose of 1 mg/kg (SB203580 group), and a combination of β-glucan (80 mg/kg) and SB203580 (1 mg/kg) injected together (βG + SB203580 group). The results revealed that the introduction of SB203580 significantly suppressed the β-glucan-induced increase in p38α and p38β mRNA expression, as well as the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK. Both the βG group and SB203580 group exhibited reduced plica height and muscularis thickness. The βG + SB203580 group displayed a significant reduction in mucin cell level; interleukin 1β (il1β) mRNA expression; induced nitric oxide synthase, tumor necrosis factor α, and IL1β concentration; catalase and total antioxidant capacity activities. Additionally, there was a significant increase in the levels of intestinal malondialdehyde in the βG + SB203580 group compared to the βG group. The inhibition of the p38 MAPK signaling halted the trend of apoptosis-related caspase molecular expression induced by β-glucan. In conclusion, β-glucan injection resulted in elevated levels of mucous cells, nonspecific immunity, antioxidant capacity, and anti-apoptosis in grouper by modulating the p38 MAPK pathway. This study offers insights into the potential molecular mechanism underlying the protective effects of β-glucan on intestinal health in pearl gentian grouper.

Inhibitor of Myom3 inhibits proliferation and promotes differentiation of sheep myoblasts

Skeletal muscle quality and yield are important production traits in livestock, and improving skeletal muscle quality while increasing its yield is an important goal of economic breeding. The proliferation and differentiation process of sheep myoblasts directly affects the growth and development of their muscles, thereby affecting the yield of mutton. Myomesin 3 (Myom3), as a functional gene related to muscle growth, currently lacks research on its function in myoblasts. This study aims to investigate the effect of the Myom3 gene on the proliferation and differentiation of sheep myoblasts and its potential molecular mechanisms. The results showed that inhibitor of Myom3 in the proliferation phase of myoblasts resulted in significant downregulation of the proliferation marker gene paired box 7 (Pax7) and myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs; Myf5, Myod1, Myog, P < 0.01), a significant decrease in the EdU-positive cell rate (P < 0.05), and a significant increase in the cell apoptosis rate (P < 0.01), which inhibited the proliferation of myoblasts and promoted their apoptosis. During the differentiation phase of myoblasts, the inhibitor of Myom3 resulted in significant downregulation of the Pax7 gene, upregulation of MRFs (Myod1, Myog, P < 0.05), and a significant increase in fusion index (P < 0.05), promoting the differentiation of myoblasts. Further transcriptome sequencing revealed that differentially expressed genes in the Myom3 interference group were mainly enriched in the MAPK signaling pathway, TNF signaling pathway, and IL-17 signaling pathway. In summary, the inhibitor of Myom3 inhibits myoblast proliferation and promotes myoblast differentiation. Therefore, Myom3 has a potential regulatory effect on the growth and development of sheep muscles, and in-depth functional research can be used for molecular breeding practices in sheep.

A Water Polysaccharide-Protein Complex from Grifola frondosa Inhibit the Growth of Subcutaneous but Not Peritoneal Colon Tumor under Fasting Condition

SCOPE

Grifola frondosa has been shown to induce immune modulatory, modulate autophagy, and apoptosis in cancer cells. However, little is known about its potential for managing tumor progression as an adjunct to nutrient restriction.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Water extract produces a G. frondosa polysaccharide-protein complex (G. frondosa PPC) of average molecular weight of 46.48 kDa, with glucose (54.8%) as the main constituent. Under serum-restricted conditions, G. frondosa PPC can significantly inhibit MC38 colorectal tumor cell migration in vitro. Under alternate-day fasting condition, G. frondosa PPC can only significantly inhibit the growth of subcutaneous (s.c.) tumor, but is feeble in halting its spread in the intraperitoneal (i.p.) cavity in tumor-bearing mice. Histopathological examination and Raman imaging show a significant increase in lipid content in the tumor microenvironment (TME) tissue of the s.c. tumor-bearing mice. G. frondosa PPC significantly increases C17:0 and C24:0 saturated fatty acids and significantly decreases C16:1 and C18:1 monounsaturated fatty acids in the TME of s.c. tumor-bearing mice compared with the i.p. cavity model.

CONCLUSION

G. frondosa PPC significantly inhibits tumor growth in s.c. tumor-bearing mice under intermittent fasting conditions by altering the fatty acid composition of the TME.

β-glucan: a potent adjuvant in immunotherapy for digestive tract tumors

The immunotherapy for gastrointestinal tumors, as a significant research direction in the field of oncology treatment in recent years, has garnered extensive attention due to its potential therapeutic efficacy and promising clinical application prospects. Recent advances in immunotherapy notwithstanding, challenges persist, such as side effects, the complexity of the tumor immune microenvironment, variable patient responses, and drug resistance. Consequently, there is a pressing need to explore novel adjunctive therapeutic modalities. β-glucan, an immunomodulatory agent, has exhibited promising anti-tumor efficacy in preclinical studies involving colorectal cancer, pancreatic cancer, and gastric cancer, while also mitigating the adverse reactions associated with chemotherapy and enhancing patients' quality of life. However, further clinical and fundamental research is warranted to comprehensively evaluate its therapeutic potential and underlying biological mechanisms. In the future, β-glucan holds promise as an adjunctive treatment for gastrointestinal tumors, potentially bringing significant benefits to patients.

A review of the fungal polysaccharides as natural biopolymers: Current applications and future perspective

As a unique natural resource, fungi are a sustainable source of lipids, polysaccharides, vitamins, proteins, and other nutrients. As a result, they have beneficial medicinal and nutritional properties. Polysaccharides are among the most significant bioactive components found in fungi. Increasing research has revealed that fungal polysaccharides (FPS) contain a variety of bioactivities, including antitumor, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, and anti-aging properties. However, the exact knowledge about FPS and their applications related to their future possibilities must be thoroughly examined to enhance a better understanding of this sustainable biopolymer source. Therefore, FPS' biological applications and their role in the food and feed industry, agriculture, and cosmetics applications were all discussed in this work. In addition, this review highlighted the mode of action of FPS on human diseases by regulating gut microbiota and discussed the mechanism of FPS as antioxidants in the living cell. The structure-activity connections of FPS were also highlighted and explored. Moreover, future perspectives were listed to pave the way for future studies of FPS applications. Hence, this study can be a scientific foundation for future FPS research and industrial applications.

Yeast-derived particulate beta-glucan induced angiogenesis via regulating PI3K/Src and ERK1/2 signaling pathway

The importance of β-glucan from S. cerevisiae in angiogenesis has not been well studied. We investigated whether β-glucan induces angiogenesis through PI3K/Src and ERK1/2 signaling pathway in HUVECs. We identified that β-glucan induced phosphorylation of PI3K, Src, Akt, eNOS, and ERK1/2. Subsequently, we found that this phosphorylation increased the viability of HUVECs. We also observed that stimulation of β-glucan promoted the activity of MEF2 and MEF2-dependent pro-angiogenic genes, including EGR2, EGR3, KLF2, and KLF4. Additionally, the role of β-glucan in angiogenesis was confirmed using in vitro and ex vivo experiments including cell migration, capillary-like tube formation and mouse aorta ring assays. To determine the effect of β-glucan on the PI3K/Akt/eNOS and ERK1/2 signaling pathway, PI3K inhibitor wortmannin and ERK1/2 inhibitor SCH772984 were used. Through the Matrigel plug assay, we confirmed that β-glucan significantly increased angiogenesis in vivo. Taken together, our study demonstrates that β-glucan promotes angiogenesis via through PI3K and ERK1/2 signaling pathway.

Ganoderma lucidum spores-derived particulate β-glucan treatment improves antitumor response by regulating myeloid-derived suppressor cells in triple-negative breast cancer

Granular β-1,3-glucan extracted from the wall of Ganoderma lucidum spores, named GPG, is a bioregulator. In this study, we investigated the structural, thermal, and other physical properties of GPG. We determined whether GPG ameliorated immunosuppression caused by Gemcitabine (GEM) chemotherapy. Triple-negative breast cancer mice with GPG combined with GEM treatment had reduced tumor burdens. In addition, GEM treatment alone altered the tumor microenvironment(TME), including a reduction in antitumor T cells and a rise in myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) and regulatory T cells (Tregs). However, combined GPG treatment reversed the tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment induced by GEM. GPG inhibited bone marrow (BM)-derived MDSC differentiation and reversed MDSC expansion induced by conditioned medium (CM) in GEM-treated E0771 cells through a Dectin-1 pathway. In addition, GPG downgraded PD-L1 and IDO1 expression on MDSC while boosting MHC-II, CD86, TNF-α, and IL-6 expression. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that GPG could alleviate the adverse effects induced by GEM chemotherapy by regulating TME.

Preparation, structural characteristics and pharmacological activity of polysaccharides from Polygala tenuifolia: A review

Polygala tenuifolia is a traditional Chinese medicine with a long history of application, with the efficacy of suppressing cough, calming asthma, tranquilizing the mind, and benefiting the intellect. It is classified as a top-quality medicine in Shennong's Classic of Materia Medica. Polysaccharide is an important active ingredient in Polygala tenuifolia, which consists of several monosaccharides, including Ara, Gal, Glc, and so on. In this review, the preparation methods, structural characteristics, and biological activities of polysaccharides from Polygala tenuifolia are summarized, and the problems in the current studies are discussed to support further research, development, and utilization.

A review of the current state of natural biomaterials in wound healing applications

Skin, the largest biological organ, consists of three main parts: the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous tissue. Wounds are abnormal wounds in various forms, such as lacerations, burns, chronic wounds, diabetic wounds, acute wounds, and fractures. The wound healing process is dynamic, complex, and lengthy in four stages involving cells, macrophages, and growth factors. Wound dressing refers to a substance that covers the surface of a wound to prevent infection and secondary damage. Biomaterials applied in wound management have advanced significantly. Natural biomaterials are increasingly used due to their advantages including biomimicry of ECM, convenient accessibility, and involvement in native wound healing. However, there are still limitations such as low mechanical properties and expensive extraction methods. Therefore, their combination with synthetic biomaterials and/or adding bioactive agents has become an option for researchers in this field. In the present study, the stages of natural wound healing and the effect of biomaterials on its direction, type, and level will be investigated. Then, different types of polysaccharides and proteins were selected as desirable natural biomaterials, polymers as synthetic biomaterials with variable and suitable properties, and bioactive agents as effective additives. In the following, the structure of selected biomaterials, their extraction and production methods, their participation in wound healing, and quality control techniques of biomaterials-based wound dressings will be discussed.

Doxorubicin-loaded zymosan nanoparticles: Synergistic cytotoxicity and modulation of apoptosis and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway in C26 colorectal cancer cells

Zymosan is a β-glucan isolated from Saccharomyces cerevisiae that could be employed for drug delivery. We synthesized zymosan nanoparticles and measured their structural and morphological properties using XRD, UV-Vis spectroscopy, TEM and AFM. The loading of doxorubicin (DOX) onto the nanoparticles was confirmed by FT-IR, and the DOX release was shown to be pH-dependent. The effect of these agents on C26 cell viability was evaluated by MTT tests and the expression of genes connected with the Wnt/β-catenin pathway and apoptosis were analyzed by RT-qPCR and Western blotting. Treatments were able to suppress the proliferation of C26 cells, and the zymosan nanocarriers loaded with DOX enhanced the anti-proliferative effect of DOX in a synergistic manner. Zymosan nanoparticles were able to suppress the expression of cyclin D1, VEGF, ZEB1, and Twist mRNAs. Treatment groups upregulated the expression of caspase-8, while reducing the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, thus promoting apoptosis. In conclusion, zymosan nanoparticles as DOX nanocarriers could provide a more targeted drug delivery through pH-responsiveness, and showed synergistic cytotoxicity by modifying Wnt/β-catenin signaling and apoptosis.

An Electroconductive and Antibacterial Adhesive Nanocomposite Hydrogel for High-Performance Skin Wound Healing

Multifunctional hydrogel adhesives inhibiting infections and enabling the electrical stimulation (ES) of tissue reparation are highly desirable for the healing of surgical wounds and other skin injuries. Herein, a therapeutic nanocomposite hydrogel is designed by integrating β-cyclodextrin-embedded Ag nanoparticles (CDAgNPs) in a polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) matrix enhanced with free β-cyclodextrin (CD) and an atypical macromolecule made of β-glucan grafted with hyaluronic acid (HAG). The main objective is to develop a biocompatible dressing combining the electroconductivity and antibacterial activity of CDAgNPs with the cohesiveness and porosity of PVA and the anti-inflammatory, moisturizing, and cell proliferation-promoting properties of HAG. The last component, CD, is added to strengthen the network structure of the hydrogel. PVA/CD/HAG/CDAgNP exhibited excellent adhesion strength, biocompatibility, electroconductivity, and antimicrobial activity against a wide range of bacteria. In addition, the nanocomposite hydrogel has a swelling ratio and water retention capacity suitable to serve as a wound dressing. PVA/CD/HAG/CDAgNP promoted the proliferation of fibroblast in vitro, accelerated the healing of skin wounds in an animal model, and is hemostatic. Upon ES, the PVA/CD/HAG/CDAgNP nanocomposite hydrogel became more efficient both in vitro and in vivo further speeding up the skin healing process thus demonstrating its potential as a next-generation electroconductive wound dressing.

Stimulus-Responsive Hydrogels as Drug Delivery Systems for Inflammation Targeted Therapy

Deregulated inflammations induced by various factors are one of the most common diseases in people's daily life, while severe inflammation can even lead to death. Thus, the efficient treatment of inflammation has always been the hot topic in the research of medicine. In the past decades, as a potential biomaterial, stimuli-responsive hydrogels have been a focus of attention for the inflammation treatment due to their excellent biocompatibility and design flexibility. Recently, thanks to the rapid development of nanotechnology and material science, more and more efforts have been made to develop safer, more personal and more effective hydrogels for the therapy of some frequent but tough inflammations such as sepsis, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, periodontitis, and ulcerative colitis. Herein, from recent studies and articles, the conventional and emerging hydrogels in the delivery of anti-inflammatory drugs and the therapy for various inflammations are summarized. And their prospects of clinical translation and future development are also discussed in further detail.

Exploring β-glucan as a micro-nano system for oral delivery targeted the colon

The critical role of oral colon-specific delivery systems (OCDDS) is important for delivering active agents to the colon and rectum specifically via the oral route. The use of micro/nanostructured OCDDS further improves drug stability, bioavailability, and retention time, leading to enhanced therapeutic effects. However, designing micro/nanoscale OCDDSs is challenging due to pH changes, enzymatic degradation, and systemic absorption and metabolism. Biodegradable natural polysaccharides are a promising solution to these problems, and β-glucan is one of the most promising natural polysaccharides due to its unique structural features, conformational flexibility, and specific processing properties. This review covers the diverse chemical structures of β-glucan, its benefits (biocompatibility, easy modification, and colon-specific degradation), and various β-glucan-based micro/nanosized OCDDSs, as well as their drawbacks. The potential of β-glucan offers exciting new opportunities for colon-specific drug delivery.

Comprehensive evaluation of cell death-related genes as novel diagnostic biomarkers for breast cancer

Background

Breast cancer (BRCA) ranks first among cancers in terms of incidence and mortality rates in women, primarily owing to metastasis, chemo-resistance, and heterogeneity. To predict long-term prognosis and design novel therapies for BRCA, more sensitive markers need to be explored.

Methods

Data from 1089 BRCA patients were downloaded from TCGA database. Pearson's correlation analysis and univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses were performed to assess the role of cell death-related genes (CDGs) in predicting BRCA prognosis. Kaplan-Meier survival curves were generated to compare the overall survival in the two subgroups. A nomogram was constructed using risk scores based on the five CDGs and other clinicopathological features. CCK-8, EdU incorporation, and colony formation assays were performed to verify the inhibitory effect of NFKBIA on BRCA cell proliferation. Transwell assay, flow cytometry, and immunohistochemistry analyses were performed to ascertain the biological function of NFKBIA.

Results

Five differentially expressed CDGs were detected among 156 CDGs. The risk score for each patient was then calculated based on the expression levels of the five CDGs. Distinct differences in immune infiltration, expression of immune-oncological targets, mutation status, and half-maximal inhibitory concentration values of some targeted drugs were observed between the high- and low-risk groups. Finally, in vitro cell experiments verified that NFKBIA overexpression suppresses the proliferation and migration of BRCA cells.

Conclusions

Our study revealed that some CDGs, especially NFKBIA, could serve as sensitive markers for predicting the prognosis of patients with BRCA and designing more personalized clinical therapies.

Overexpression of FTO inhibits excessive proliferation and promotes the apoptosis of human glomerular mesangial cells by alleviating FOXO6 m6A modification via YTHDF3-dependent mechanisms

Background: N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is a prevalent post-transcriptional modification presented in messenger RNA (mRNA) of eukaryotic organisms. Chronic glomerulonephritis (CGN) is characterised by excessive proliferation and insufficient apoptosis of human glomerular mesangial cells (HGMCs) but its underlying pathogenesis remains undefined. Moreover, the role of m6A in CGN is poorly understood. Methods: The total level of m6A modification was detected using the m6A quantification assay (Colorimetric). Cell proliferation was assessed by EdU cell proliferation assay, and cell apoptosis was detected by flow cytometry. RNA sequencing was performed to screen the downstream target of fat mass and obesity-associated protein (FTO). MeRIP-qPCR was conducted to detect the m6A level of forkhead box o6 (FOXO6) in HGMCs. RIP assay was utilized to indicate the targeting relationship between YTH domain family 3 (YTHDF3) and FOXO6. Actinomycin D assay was used to investigate the stability of FOXO6 in HGMCs. Results: The study found that the expression of FTO was significantly reduced in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced HGMCs and renal biopsy samples of patients with CGN. Moreover, FTO overexpression and knockdown could regulate the proliferation and apoptosis of HGMCs. Furthermore, RNA sequencing and cellular experiments revealed FOXO6 as a downstream target of FTO in regulating the proliferation and apoptosis of HGMCs. Mechanistically, FTO overexpression decreases the level of FOXO6 m6A modification and reduces the stability of FOXO6 mRNA in a YTHDF3-dependent manner. Additionally, the decreased expression of FOXO6 inhibits the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, thereby inhibiting the proliferation and promoting apoptosis of HGMCs. Conclusion: This study offers insights into the mechanism through which FTO regulates the proliferation and apoptosis of HGMCs by mediating m6A modification of FOXO6 mRNA. These findings also suggest FTO as a potential diagnostic marker and therapeutic target for CGN.

Modulation of wheatgrass (Triticum aestivum Linn) toxicity against breast cancer cell lines by simulated microgravity

This study scrutinizes the effects of simulated microgravity on the antioxidant and cytotoxic potential, along with the phytochemical content of wheatgrass (Triticum aestivum Linn). To imitate microgravity, wheatgrass seeds were germinated in a 3D-clinostat at different rotations per minute (5, 10, 15, and 20 rpm), together with terrestrial gravity control, over 10 days. After germination, the methanolic extracts were analyzed using UPLC-Triple Quad LCMS for their phytochemical composition and tested for their hydrogen peroxide, nitric oxide, and DPPH scavenging activities. The cytotoxic effects of these extracts were evaluated against normal skin fibroblasts, normal breast cells (MCF-10), and breast cancer cells (MCF-7 and MDA-231). The findings showed an extended root growth in wheatgrass germinated under microgravity (WGM) compared to under gravity (WGG). Additionally, WGM extracts demonstrated increased H2O2-, NO-, and DPPH-scavenging activities and a higher content of polyphenols and flavonoids than WGG extracts. These effects were amplified with an increase in clinostat rotations. Moreover, WGM extracts were found to contain a unique set of bioactive compounds (compounds that were detected in the microgravity-germinated wheatgrass but were either absent or present in lower concentrations in wheatgrass germinated under standard gravity conditions.), including pyridoxine, apigenin, and tocopherol, among others, which were absent in WGG. The UPLC-Triple Quad LCMS analysis revealed these unique bioactive compounds in WGM. Notably, WGM extracts showed enhanced cytotoxic effects against normal skin fibroblasts, normal MCF-10, MCF-7, and breast cancer MDA-231 cell lines, with increased cytotoxicity correlating with the number of clinostat rotations. Particularly, WGM extract (at 20 rpm) demonstrated significantly stronger cytotoxicity against MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Further in-depth gene expression analysis of MCF-7 cells exposed to WGM revealed a significant downregulation of genes integral to breast cancer pathways, tyrosine kinase signaling, and DNA repair, complemented by upregulation of certain cell survival and cytotoxic genes. These alterations in genetic pathways associated with cell survival, hormone responses, and cancer progression may elucidate the enhanced cytotoxicity observed in WGM extracts. Our findings underscore the potential of microgravity as a tool to enhance the cytotoxic capabilities of wheatgrass against cancer cell lines, presenting a promising direction for future research in the field of space biology and its implications for terrestrial health.

β-Glucans in particulate and solubilized forms elicit varied immunomodulatory and apoptosis effects in teleost macrophages in a dosedependent manner

β-Glucans are a group of heterogeneous glucose polymers that possess immunomodulatory activities. The complex nature of their structures, uncertainty regarding the doses, and variable immune effects pose a challenge to comprehensive understanding. In this study, we investigated the immune responses and apoptosis effects in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) head kidney macrophages (MФ) upon exposure to two β-Glucans (Paramylon and Laminarin) at low and high doses. Our results demonstrate that Paramylon elicits more robust immune responses than Laminarin, albeit with a dose-limiting effect. We also observed that the high-dose Paramylon induces apoptosis, whereas no such effect was detected in Laminarin treatment. Mechanistically, high-dose Paramylon activates the intrinsic apoptosis pathway, with significantly up-regulation of intrinsic apoptosis-related genes and impaired mitochondrial function. On the other hand, Laminarin triggers metabolic reprogramming in MФ, resulting in the enrichment of the metabolite α-Ketoglutarate, which protects the MФ from apoptosis. Overall, our findings highlight the importance of identifying the optimal dose range for β-Glucans, based on sources or structures, to achieve maximal immunomodulatory effects. These results have important implications for the design and optimization of β-Glucans-based drugs or adjuvants in immunotherapies.

Functional and Nutritional Characteristics of Natural or Modified Wheat Bran Non-Starch Polysaccharides: A Literature Review

Wheat bran (WB) consists mainly of different histological cell layers (pericarp, testa, hyaline layer and aleurone). WB contains large quantities of non-starch polysaccharides (NSP), including arabinoxylans (AX) and β-glucans. These dietary fibres have long been studied for their health effects on management and prevention of cardiovascular diseases, cholesterol, obesity, type-2 diabetes, and cancer. NSP benefits depend on their dose and molecular characteristics, including concentration, viscosity, molecular weight, and linked-polyphenols bioavailability. Given the positive health effects of WB, its incorporation in different food products is steadily increasing. However, the rheological, organoleptic and other problems associated with WB integration are numerous. Biological, physical, chemical and combined methods have been developed to optimise and modify NSP molecular characteristics. Most of these techniques aimed to potentially improve food processing, nutritional and health benefits. In this review, the physicochemical, molecular and functional properties of modified and unmodified WB are highlighted and explored. Up-to-date research findings from the clinical trials on mechanisms that WB have and their effects on health markers are critically reviewed. The review points out the lack of research using WB or purified WB fibre components in randomized, controlled clinical trials.

Characterization of a Glycoside Hydrolase Family 157 Endo-β-1,3-Glucanase That Displays Antifungal Activity against Phytopathogens

β-1,3-Glucan-degrading enzymes are widely used in fields such as food processing, plant protection, and breweries. In this work, we identified a glycoside hydrolase (GH) family 157 endo-β-1,3-glucanase (BsGlc157A) from Bacteroides sp. M27 and characterized its biochemical properties, structural model, and antifungal activity. Enzymological characterization indicated that BsGlc157A performs its optimal catalytic activity at pH 6.0 and 40 °C. BsGlc157A adopted the classic (β/α)₈ TIM-barrel structure. Two catalytic residues, the nucleophile (Glu215) and the proton donor (Glu123), were confirmed via structural modeling and site-directed mutagenesis. Moreover, BsGlc157A hydrolyzed curdlan into a series of oligosaccharides with polymerization degrees 2-5 and exhibited inhibitory effects on the hyphal growth of typical fruit pathogenic fungi (Monilinia fructicola, Alternaria alternata, and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides), thereby illustrating effective biocontrol activity. These results revealed the catalytic properties and the application potential of GH family 157 β-1,3-glucanase, thus providing valuable biochemistry information about the group of carbohydrate-active enzymes.

A novel cell-wall polysaccharide derived from the stipe of Agaricus bisporus inhibits mouse melanoma proliferation and metastasis

Malignant melanoma is an invasive and highly aggressive skin cancer that-if diagnosed-poses a serious threat to the patient's health and life. In this work, a novel purified cell-wall polysaccharide (termed Abwp) was obtained from the discarded stipe of Agaricus bisporus (A. bisporus) and characterized to be a novel homogeneous polysaccharide consisted of a β-(1 → 4)- glucosyl backbone with β-(1 → 2) and (1 → 6)-d-glucosyl side-chains. The anti-melanoma effects of Abwp and its associated mechanisms in mice were then explored using in vitro and in vivo approaches. In vitro results showed that Abwp inhibited B16 melanoma cell proliferation and promoted their apoptosis in both time- and dose-dependent manners. In B16 cells induced with tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), Abwp significantly decreased the protein expression of inflammatory-related signaling pathway (e.g., p38 MAPK and NF-κB) in time-, concentration-, and dose-dependent manners. Moreover, Abwp blocked nuclear entry of NF-κB-p65. In an in vivo mouse model featuring neoplasm transplantation with B16 melanoma cells, Abwp significantly inhibited the growth and proliferation of mouse melanoma. Hematoxylin staining showed that the invasion of melanoma cells into the lung tissue of the Abwp-treated group was significantly reduced. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that the expression of proliferation cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), N-cadherin, MMP-9, and Snail in the lung of mouse was significantly inhibited. Immunofluorescence showed that Abwp significantly interfered with the nuclear transcription of NF-κB-p65 in a dose-dependent manner. Collectively, these results showed that Abwp mediated p38 MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways to inhibit the inflammatory response and malignant proliferation and metastasis of melanoma in mice.

Immunomodulatory Effect and Biological Significance of β-Glucans

β-glucan, one of the homopolysaccharides composed of D-glucose, exists widely in cereals and microorganisms and possesses various biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-tumor properties. More recently, there has been mounting proof that β-glucan functions as a physiologically active "biological response modulator (BRM)", promoting dendritic cell maturation, cytokine secretion, and regulating adaptive immune responses-all of which are directly connected with β-glucan-regulated glucan receptors. This review focuses on the sources, structures, immune regulation, and receptor recognition mechanisms of β-glucan.

Perspectives in the Application of High, Medium, and Low Molecular Weight Oat β-d-Glucans in Dietary Nutrition and Food Technology-A Short Overview

For centuries human civilization has cultivated oats, and now they are consumed in various forms of food, from instant breakfasts to beverages. They are a nutrient-rich food containing linear mixed-linkage (1 → 3) (1 → 4)-β-d-glucans, which are relatively well soluble in water and responsible for various biological effects: the regulation of the blood cholesterol level, as well as being anti-inflammatory, prebiotic, antioxidant, and tumor-preventing. Numerous studies, especially in the last two decades, highlight the differences in the biological properties of the oat β-d-glucan fractions of low, medium, and high molecular weight. These fractions differ in their features due to variations in bioavailability related to the rheological properties of these polysaccharides, and their association with food matrices, purity, and mode of preparation or modification. There is strong evidence that, under different conditions, the molecular weight may determine the potency of oat-extracted β-d-glucans. In this review, we intend to give a concise overview of the properties and studies of the biological activities of oat β-d-glucan preparations depending on their molecular weight and how they represent a prospective ingredient of functional food with the potential to prevent or modulate various pathological conditions.

Mediation of synergistic chemotherapy and gene therapy via nanoparticles based on chitosan and ionic polysaccharides

Nanoparticles (NPs)-based on various ionic polysaccharides, including chitosan, hyaluronic acid, and alginate have been frequently summarized for controlled release applications, however, most of the published reviews, to our knowledge, focused on the delivery of a single therapeutic agent. A comprehensive summarization of the co-delivery of multiple therapeutic agents by the ionic polysaccharides-based NPs, especially on the optimization of the polysaccharide structure for overcoming various extracellular and intracellular barriers toward maximized synergistic effects, to our knowledge, has been rarely explored so far. For this purpose, the strategies used for overcoming various extracellular and intracellular barriers in vivo were introduced first to provide guidance for the rational design of ionic polysaccharides-based NPs with desired features, including long-term circulation, enhanced cellular internalization, controllable drug/gene release, endosomal escape and improved nucleus localization. Next, four preparation strategies were summarized including three physical methods of polyelectrolyte complexation, ionic crosslinking, and self-assembly and a chemical conjugation approach. The challenges and future trends of this rapidly developing field were finally discussed in the concluding remarks. The important guidelines on the rational design of ionic polysaccharides-based NPs for maximized synergistic efficiency drawn in this review will promote the future generation and clinical translation of polysaccharides-based NPs for cancer therapy.

Biological Properties and Health-Promoting Functions of Laminarin: A Comprehensive Review of Preclinical and Clinical Studies

Marine algal species comprise of a large portion of polysaccharides which have shown multifunctional properties and health benefits for treating and preventing human diseases. Laminarin, or β-glucan, a storage polysaccharide from brown algae, has been reported to have potential pharmacological properties such as antioxidant, anti-tumor, anti-coagulant, anticancer, immunomodulatory, anti-obesity, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, wound healing, and neuroprotective potential. It has been widely investigated as a functional material in biomedical applications as it is biodegradable, biocompatible, and is low toxic substances. The reported preclinical and clinical studies demonstrate the potential of laminarin as natural alternative agents in biomedical and industrial applications such as nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, functional food, drug development/delivery, and cosmeceuticals. This review summarizes the biological activities of laminarin, including mechanisms of action, impacts on human health, and reported health benefits. Additionally, this review also provides an overview of recent advances and identifies gaps and opportunities for further research in this field. It further emphasizes the molecular characteristics and biological activities of laminarin in both preclinical and clinical settings for the prevention of the diseases and as potential therapeutic interventions.

Yeast Beta-Glucans Ingestion Does Not Influence Body Weight: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Pre-Clinical Studies

Dietary fiber supplementation has been studied as a promising strategy in the treatment of obesity and its comorbidities. A systematic review and meta-analysis were performed to verify whether the consumption of yeast beta-glucan (BG) favors weight loss in obese and non-obese rodents. The PICO strategy was employed, investigating rodents (Population), subjected to the oral administration of yeast BG (Intervention) compared to animals receiving placebo (Comparison), evaluating body weight changes (Outcome), and based on preclinical studies (Study design). Two reviewers searched six databases and the grey literature. We followed the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, and the protocol was registered on PROSPERO (CRD42021267788). The search returned 2467 articles. Thirty articles were selected for full-text evaluation, and seven studies remained based on the eligibility criteria. The effects of BG intake on body weight were analyzed based on obese (n = 4 studies) and non-obese animals (n = 4 studies). Even though most studies on obese rodents (75%) indicated a reduction in body weight (qualitative analysis), the meta-analysis showed this was not significant (mean difference −1.35 g—95% CI −5.14:2.45). No effects were also observed for non-obese animals. We concluded that the ingestion of yeast BG barely affects the body weight of obese and non-obese animals.