Partition and stability of folic acid and caffeic acid in hollow zein particles coated with chitosan

Preparation, characterization, stability, and controlled release of chitosan-coated zein/shellac nanoparticles for the delivery of quercetin

Quercetin, an essential flavonoid compound, exhibits diverse biological activities including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. Nevertheless, due to its inadequate solubility in water and vulnerability to degradation, pure quercetin is constrainedly utilized in pharmaceutical formulations and functional foods. Considering the existing scarcity of nanoparticles consisted of zein and hydrophobic biopolymers, this study developed a quercetin-loaded nanoencapsulation based on zein, shellac, and chitosan (QZSC). When the mass ratio of zein to chitosan was 4:1, the encapsulation efficiency of QZSC reached 74.95%. The ability of QZSC for scavenging DPPH radicals and ABTS radicals increased from 59.2% to 75.4% and from 47.0% to 70.2%, respectively, compared to Quercetin. For QZSC, the maximum release amount of quercetin reached 59.62% in simulated gastric fluid and 81.64% in simulated intestinal fluid, achieving controlled and regulated release in vitro. In summary, this study offers a highly promising encapsulation strategy for hydrophobic bioactive substances that are prone to instability.

Encapsulation of phenolic acids within food-grade carriers systems: a systematic review

Phenolic acids are natural compounds with potential therapeutic effects against various diseases. However, their incorporation into food and pharmaceutical products is limited by challenges such as instability, low solubility, and reduced bioavailability. This systematic review summarizes recent advances in phenolic acid encapsulation using food-grade carrier systems, focusing on proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides. Encapsulation efficiency, release behavior, and bioavailability are examined, as well as the potential health benefits of encapsulated phenolic acids in food products. Strategies to address limitations of current encapsulation systems are also proposed. Encapsulation has emerged as a promising method to enhance the stability and bioavailability of phenolic acids in food products, and various encapsulation technologies have been developed for this purpose. The use of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates as carriers in food-grade encapsulation systems remains a common approach, but it is associated with certain limitations. Future research on phenolic acid encapsulation should focus on developing environmentally friendly, organic solvent-free, low-energy, scalable, and stable encapsulation systems, as well as co-encapsulation methods that combine multiple phenolic acids or phenolic acids with other bioactive substances to produce synergistic effects.

Research advances in Zein-based nano-delivery systems

Zein is the main vegetable protein from maize. In recent years, Zein has been widely used in pharmaceutical, agriculture, food, environmental protection, and other fields because it has excellent biocompatibility and biosafety. However, there is still a lack of systematic review and research on Zein-based nano-delivery systems. This paper systematically reviews preparation and modification methods of Zein-based nano-delivery systems, based on the basic properties of Zein. It discusses the preparation of Zein nanoparticles and the influencing factors in detail, as well as analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of different preparation methods and summarizing modification methods of Zein nanoparticles. This study provides a new idea for the research of Zein-based nano-delivery system and promotes its application.

Nanoencapsulation and delivery of bioactive ingredients using zein nanocarriers: approaches, characterization, applications, and perspectives

Zein has garnered widespread attention as a versatile material for nanosized delivery systems due to its unique self-assembly properties, amphiphilicity, and biocompatibility characteristics. This review provides an overview of current approaches, characterizations, applications, and perspectives of nanoencapsulation and delivery of bioactive ingredients within zein-based nanocarriers. Various nanoencapsulation strategies for bioactive ingredients using various types of zein-based nanocarrier structures, including nanoparticles, nanofibers, nanoemulsions, and nanogels, are discussed in detail. Factors affecting the stability of zein nanocarriers and characterization methods of bioactive-loaded zein nanocarrier structures are highlighted. Additionally, current applications of zein nanocarriers loaded with bioactive ingredients are summarized. This review will serve as a guide for the selection of appropriate nanoencapsulation techniques within zein nanocarriers and a comprehensive understanding of zein-based nanocarriers for specific applications in the food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and agricultural industries.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-023-01489-6.

Modulation the Synergistic Effect of Chitosan-Sodium Alginate Nanoparticles with Ca2+: Enhancing the Stability of Pickering Emulsion on D-Limonene

Pickering emulsions (PEs) have been regarded as an effective approach to sustaining and preserving the bioactivities of essential oils. The aim of this research is to prepare a PE stabilized by chitosan/alginate nanoparticles (CS-SA NPs) for the encapsulation and stabilization of D-limonene. In this work, the influence of calcium ions (Ca2+) on the morphology and interaction of nanoparticles was studied, and then the preparation technology of CS-SA/Ca2+ NPs was optimized. The results showed that the presence of Ca2+ reduced the size of the nanoparticles and made them assume a spherical structure. In addition, under the conditions of 0.2 mg/mL CaCl2, 0.6 mg/mL SA, and 0.4 mg/mL CS, the CS-SA/Ca2+ NPs had the smallest size (274 ± 2.51 nm) and high stability (-49 ± 0.69 mV). Secondly, the PE was prepared by emulsifying D-limonene with CS-SA/Ca2+ NPs, and the NP concentrations and homogenization speeds were optimized. The results showed that the small droplet size PE could be prepared with 2 mg/mL NP and a homogenization speed of 20,000 r/min, and it had excellent antibacterial and antioxidant activities. Most importantly, the emulsion showed higher activity, higher resistance to ultraviolet (UV) and a higher temperature than free D-limonene. This research provides a feasible solution for the encapsulation, protection and delivery of essential oils.

A comprehensive review of protein-based carriers with simple structures for the co-encapsulation of bioactive agents

The rational design and fabrication of edible codelivery carriers are important to develop functional foods fortified with a plurality of bioactive agents, which may produce synergistic effects in increasing bioactivity and functionality to target specific health benefits. Food proteins possess considerable functional attributes that make them suitable for the delivery of a single bioactive agent in a wide range of platforms. Among the different types of protein-based carriers, protein-ligand nanocomplexes, micro/nanoparticles, and oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions have increasingly attracted attention in the codelivery of multiple bioactive agents, due to the simple and convenient preparation procedure, high stability, matrix compatibility, and dosage flexibility. However, the successful codelivery of bioactive agents with diverse physicochemical properties by using these simple-structure carriers is a daunting task. In this review, some effective strategies such as combined functional properties of proteins, self-assembly, composite, layer-by-layer, and interfacial engineering are introduced to redesign the carrier structure and explore the encapsulation of multiple bioactive agents. It then highlights success stories and challenges in the co-encapsulation of multiple bioactive agents within protein-based carriers with a simple structure. The partition, protection, and release of bioactive agents in these protein-based codelivery carriers are considered and discussed. Finally, safety and application as well as challenges of co-encapsulated bioactive agents in the food industry are also discussed. This work provides a state-of-the-art overview of protein-based particles and O/W emulsions in co-encapsulating bioactive agents, which is essential for the design and development of novel functional foods containing multiple bioactive agents.

Amino-functionalized cross-linked cellulosic fabric with antibacterial, UV protection, and coloring effects using folic acid

The amino-functionalized cellulose with folic acid, via an esterification reaction between carboxylic acid of folic acid and hydroxyl groups of cellulose, can develop multifunctional products with new chemical and physical properties. Folic acid contains two carboxylic groups as well as an amine group that can be used as a coupling agent and provide suitable conditions for coupling hydroxyl-based compounds to cellulose. Also; the multi-functionalized cellulose with folic acid has no effects on the physical and mechanical properties and also has benefits such as antibacterial, UV protection, and wrinkle resistance. The FTIR-ATR and Raman analysis confirmed the amino functionalized-cellulosic fabric via an esterification reaction between cellulose and folic acid. The cell viability of L929 fibroblast (NCBI C161) and MCF-7 (NCBI C135) cancer cells indicated more effectiveness on MCF-7 cancer cells. Therefore; folic acid can be used as a biocompatible natural cross-linker to modify cellulose fabrics for apparel and medical applications.

Integrated multispectroscopic analysis and molecular docking analyses of the structure-affinity relationship and mechanism of the interaction of flavonoids with zein

Zein is a desired carrier to construct a delivery system for flavonoids. However, studies examining the binding of flavonoids with zein are still inadequate. Therefore, the structure-affinity relationship and mechanism underlying the interaction between flavonoids and zein were investigated using multiple spectroscopy techniques and molecular docking. The UV-vis spectra revealed ground-state complex formation. The fluorescence quenching spectra suggested that flavonoids effectively quenched the intrinsic fluorescence of zein mainly through static quenching. The structure-affinity relationship revealed the key structural elements and preferred substituents at specific sites of flavonoids related to binding affinity with zein. The synchronous, ANS-binding fluorescence and FT-IR spectra confirmed that flavonoids induced a conformational change in zein secondary structure. Additionally, molecular docking further provided a favorable binding conformation and underlined the important role of hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonds in their interactions. These findings suggest that different flavonoid structures significantly influence binding behaviors with zein.

Fabrication and characterization of a cannabidiol-loaded emulsion stabilized by a whey protein-maltodextrin conjugate and rosmarinic acid complex

A cannabidiol (CBD)-loaded oil-in-water emulsion stabilized by a whey protein (WP)-maltodextrin (MD) conjugate and rosmarinic acid (RA) complex was fabricated, and its stability characteristics were investigated under various environmental conditions. The WP-MD conjugates were formed via dry-heating. The interaction between WP and MD was assessed by browning intensity, reduced amount of free amino groups, the formation of high molecular weight components in sodium dodecyl sulfate-PAGE, and changes in secondary structure of whey proteins. The WP-MD-RA noncovalent complex was prepared and confirmed by fluorescence quenching and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy spectra. Emulsions stabilized by WP, WP-MD, and WP-RA were used as references to evaluate the effect of WP-MD-RA as a novel emulsifier. Results showed that WP-MD-RA was an effective emulsifier to produce fine droplets for a CBD-loaded emulsion and remarkably improved the pH and salt stabilities of emulsions in comparison with WP. An emulsion prepared with WP-MD-RA showed the highest protection of CBD against UV and heat-induced degradation among all emulsions. The ternary complex kept emulsions in small particle size during storage at 4°C. Data from the current study may offer useful information for designing emulsion-based delivery systems which can protect active substance against environmental stresses.

Chitosan-modified nanocarriers as carriers for anticancer drug delivery: Promises and hurdles

With the advent of drug delivery, various polymeric materials are being explored to fabricate numerous nanocarriers. Each polymer is associated with a few characteristics attributes which further facilitate its usage in drug delivery. One such polymer is chitosan (CS), which is extensively employed to deliver a variety of drugs to various targets, especially to cancer cells. The desired properties like biological origin, bio-adhesive, biocompatibility, the scope of chemical modification, biodegradability and controlled drug release make it a highly rough after polymer in pharmaceutical nanotechnology. The present review attempts to compile various chemical modifications on CS and showcase the outcomes of the derived nanocarriers, especially in cancer chemotherapy and drug delivery.

Enhanced cellular uptake, transport and oral bioavailability of optimized folic acid-loaded chitosan nanoparticles

Folic acid is a synthetic form of folate widely used for food fortification. However, its bioavailability is limited due to its inherent instability at several conditions. Therefore, a suitable encapsulation system is highly required. In the present study, the fabrication condition for folic acid-loaded chitosan nanoparticle (FA-Chi-NP) was optimized and then subjected to characterization. The optimized formulation had the particle size, zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency of 180 nm, +52 mV, and 90%, respectively. In vitro release profile showed a controlled release of folic acid from the nanoparticles. Treatment of Caco-2 cells with the formulation showed no adverse effects based on MTT and LDH assays, and also, the cellular uptake was significantly higher after 2 h compared to free folic acid. Further, the oral administration of rats with FA-Chi-NPs (1 mg/kg BW) increased the plasma level of both folic acid (3.2-fold) and its metabolites such as tetrahydrofolate (2.3-fold) and 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (1.6-fold) significantly compared to free folic acid. In a bio-distribution study, duodenum and jejunum were found to be the primary sites for absorption. These findings suggest that chitosan may be a promising carrier for the delivery of folic acid and, therefore, could be exploited for various food applications.

Zein Microparticles and Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery Systems

Zein is a natural, biocompatible, and biodegradable polymer widely used in the pharmaceutical, biomedical, and packaging fields because of its low water vapor permeability, antibacterial activity, and hydrophobicity. It is a vegetal protein extracted from renewable resources (it is the major storage protein from corn). There has been growing attention to producing zein-based drug delivery systems in the recent years. Being a hydrophobic biopolymer, it is used in the controlled and targeted delivery of active principles. This review examines the present-day landscape of zein-based microparticles and nanoparticles, focusing on the different techniques used to obtain particles, the optimization of process parameters, advantages, disadvantages, and final applications.

Folic acid conjugated chitosan encapsulated palladium nanoclusters for NIR triggered photothermal breast cancer treatment

This study developed folic acid (FA) conjugated chitosan (CS) encapsulated rutin (R) synthesized palladium nanoclusters (Pd NCs) for NIR triggered and folate receptor (FR) targeted triple-negative breast cancer (MDA-MB 231 cells) treatment. R-Pd NCs exhibited flower-shaped particles with an average size of <100 nm. FA-CS encapsulation concealed the flower shape of R-Pd NCs with a positive charge. The XRD spectrum confirmed the cubic crystalline structure of Pd. The FA conjugation on CS improved the cellular uptake of R-Pd NCs in MDA-MB 231 cells was confirmed by TEM. FA-CS-R-Pd NCs (+NIR) treatment was considerably inhibited the MDA-MB 231 cells proliferation evidenced by cell viability, fluorescent staining, and flow cytometry analysis. Further, in vitro hemolysis assay and in Ovo model confirmed the non-toxic nature of FA-CS-R-Pd-NCs with or without NIR radiation. Hence, this study concluded that FA-CS-R-Pd NCs can be applied for the treatment of drug-resistant breast cancer.

Tumor-targeted delivery of honokiol via polysialic acid modified zein nanoparticles prevents breast cancer progression and metastasis

In this work, we developed polysialic acid (PSA) modified zein nanoparticles for targeted delivery of honokiol (HNK) to enhance drug delivery efficiency and specific biodistribution at tumor sites. The antisolvent precipitation and electrostatic interaction methods were employed to fabricate the PSA-Zein-HNK nanoparticles, which exhibited mean size of 107.2 ± 10.1 nm and HNK encapsulation efficiency of 79.2 ± 2.3%. The PSA-Zein-HNK maintained a uniform dispersion in serum for 48 h, implying the improved colloid stability of zein nanoparticles via PSA coating. The cellular uptake of PSA-Zein-Cou6 nanoparticles in 4 T1 cells was 2.58-fold higher than non-targeting Zein-Cou6. In addition, the IC₅₀ value at 48 h for PSA-Zein-HNK (4.37 μg/mL) was significantly higher than the Zein-HNK (7.74 μg/mL). Enhanced tumor accumulation of the PSA-Zein-HNK was confirmed in 4 T1 breast cancer-bearing mice by near-infrared fluorescence imaging, resulting in desirable antitumor efficacy and favorable biosafety. Besides, compared with non-targeting zein nanoparticles, the PSA-Zein-HNK achieved a higher tumor growth inhibition rate of 52.3%. In particular, the metastasis of breast cancer to the lung or liver was remarkably suppressed by PSA-Zein-HNK. Together, our results demonstrated that the PSA-Zein-HNK could be a potential tumor-targeted drug delivery strategy for efficient treatment of breast cancer.

Facile formation of injectable quaternized chitosan/tannic acid hydrogels with antibacterial and ROS scavenging capabilities for diabetic wound healing

The wound healing process of the diabetic wound is often hindered by excessive oxygen free radicals and infection. An ideal wound dressing should possess great reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging property and considerable antibacterial ability. In this study, we facilely constructed a novel hydrogel dressing with excellent ROS scavenging property and outstanding antibacterial performance by introducing tannic acid (TA) into quaternized chitosan (QCS) matrix. Attributing to the suitable physical crosslinking between TA and QCS, this QCS/TA hydrogel was endowed with injectable and self-healing properties, which could avoid the various external squeezing on the irregular shape by wound dressing. The results showed that it could promote coagulation, suppress inflammation and expedite collagen deposition in the skin defect model of diabetic rats. This study provides a facile and convenient method for constructing injectable hydrogel dressing, which has application potentials in the clinical management of diabetic wounds.

Enhancing the stability of zein/fucoidan composite nanoparticles with calcium ions for quercetin delivery

In this study, zein and fucoidan-based composite nanoparticles were prepared by the antisolvent precipitation method. The effects of different calcium ion (Ca²⁺, 0-3.0 mM) concentrations on the stability of the composite nanosystems loaded with quercetin were studied under different conditions (pH, temperature, salt concentration, and ultraviolet light irradiation), and the composite nanoparticles were characterized. Electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic interactions are the main forces underlying the formation of composite nanoparticles. The addition of Ca²⁺ led to improved release of the active substances from the composite nanoparticles in simulated digestive solutions (especially when the Ca²⁺ concentration was 1.5 mM). The composite nanosystems based on alcohol-soluble proteins and anionic polysaccharides with added Ca²⁺ can be potentially applied for the delivery of active substances.

Surface-Tailored Zein Nanoparticles: Strategies and Applications

Plant-derived proteins have emerged as leading candidates in several drug and food delivery applications in diverse pharmaceutical designs. Zein is considered one of the primary plant proteins obtained from maize, and is well known for its biocompatibility and safety in biomedical fields. The ability of zein to carry various pharmaceutically active substances (PAS) position it as a valuable contender for several in vitro and in vivo applications. The unique structure and possibility of surface covering with distinct coating shells or even surface chemical modifications have enabled zein utilization in active targeted and site-specific drug delivery. This work summarizes up-to-date studies on zein formulation technology based on its structural features. Additionally, the multiple applications of zein, including drug delivery, cellular imaging, and tissue engineering, are discussed with a focus on zein-based active targeted delivery systems and antigenic response to its potential in vivo applicability.

Preparation, characterization of PLGA/chitosan nanoparticles as a delivery system for controlled release of DHA

In this work, a novel DHA-loaded nanoparticle with PLGA and chitosan (PCSDNP) was successfully prepared. The structure of PCSDNP and DHA-loaded PLGA nanoparticles was measured by transmission electron microscope, scanning electron microscope, and differential scanning calorimeter. The interaction strength between DHA, PLGA, and chitosan was evaluated through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The curves of controlled DHA release and stabilities for different environmental factors of two NPs were evaluated. Importantly, two NPs were almost regularly spherical and the interactions were hydrogen bonds and electrostatic interactions between PLGA and chitosan. These NPs had a good encapsulation rate (80.45%) and high-water solubility than the free DHA molecule. In simulated gastrointestinal fluid, two NPs showed a controlled-release pattern. Overall, PCSDNP had better stability and controlled-release effect with the synergy between CS and PLGA under the conditions of pH (2- 7), ionic strength (0- 500 mM), storage time (0- 42 d), and temperature (30- 80 °C).