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Bloxham CJ, Hulme KD, Fierro F, Fercher C, Pegg CL, O'Brien SL, Foster SR, Short KR, Furness SGB, Reichelt ME, Niv MY, Thomas WG. Cardiac human bitter taste receptors contain naturally occurring variants that alter function. Biochem Pharmacol 2024; 219:115932. [PMID: 37989413 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2023.115932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/23/2023]
Abstract
Bitter taste receptors (T2R) are a subfamily of G protein-coupled receptors that enable humans to detect aversive and toxic substances. The ability to discern bitter compounds varies between individuals and is attributed mainly to naturally occurring T2R polymorphisms. T2Rs are also expressed in numerous non-gustatory tissues, including the heart, indicating potential contributions to cardiovascular physiology. In this study. T2Rs that have previously been identified in human cardiac tissues (T2Rs - 10, 14, 30, 31, 46 and 50) and their naturally occurring polymorphisms were functionally characterised. The ligand-dependent signaling responses of some T2R variants were completely abolished (T2R30 Leu252 and T2R46 Met228), whereas other receptor variants had moderate changes in their maximal response, but not potency, relative to wild type. Using a cAMP fluorescent biosensor, we reveal the productive coupling of T2R14, but not the T2R14 Phe201 variant, to endogenous Gαi. Modeling revealed that these variants resulted in altered interactions that generally affected ligand binding (T2R30 Leu252) or Gα protein interactions (T2R46 Met228 and T2R14 Phe201), rather than receptor structural stability. Interestingly, this study is the first to show a difference in signaling for T2R50 Tyr203 (rs1376251) which has been associated with cardiovascular disease. The observation of naturally occurring functional variation in the T2Rs with the greatest expression in the heart is important, as their discovery should prove useful in deciphering the role of T2Rs within the cardiovascular system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conor J Bloxham
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, QLD, Australia; Regenerative Medicine in Cardiovascular Diseases, First Department of Medicine, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich, Germany
| | - Katina D Hulme
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Science, University of Queensland, QLD, Australia; Department of Medical Microbiology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Fabrizio Fierro
- Institute of Biochemistry, Food Science and Nutrition, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Christian Fercher
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, University of Queensland, QLD, Australia
| | - Cassandra L Pegg
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Science, University of Queensland, QLD, Australia
| | - Shannon L O'Brien
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom; Centre of Membrane Proteins and Receptors (COMPARE), Universities of Nottingham and Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Simon R Foster
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, QLD, Australia; QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, QLD, Australia
| | - Kirsty R Short
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Science, University of Queensland, QLD, Australia
| | - Sebastian G B Furness
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, QLD, Australia; Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Melissa E Reichelt
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, QLD, Australia
| | - Masha Y Niv
- Institute of Biochemistry, Food Science and Nutrition, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Walter G Thomas
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, QLD, Australia.
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Bogari N, Dannoun A, Athar M, Elkhateeb O, Porqueddu M, Allam R, Alamanni F. Genetic Association of rs10757278 on Chromosome 9p21 and Coronary Artery Disease in a Saudi Population. Int J Gen Med 2021; 14:1699-1707. [PMID: 33981157 PMCID: PMC8109021 DOI: 10.2147/ijgm.s300463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Coronary artery disease (CAD) is one of the most important leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Few studies have been carried out in the Saudi population regarding the association of rs10757278 polymorphism with CAD. This study aimed to investigate the association of the rs10757278 polymorphism with CAD in Saudi population. Materials and Methods In this case-control study, we recruited 437 patients with CAD and 251 cross-matched healthy controls and performed polymorphism genotyping for rs10757278 using a polymerase chain reaction followed by a restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. Results The G allele (OR-1.44; 95% CI: 1.15–1.80; p=0.001), as GG (OR-2.13; 95% CI: 1.35–3.36; p=0.0009), in the dominant (OR-1.47; 95% CI: 1.03–2.10; p=0.03) and recessive mode (OR-1.84; 95% CI: 1.26–2.70; p=0.001) of inheritance showed a high-risk association. A disease stratified risk analysis was conducted and comparisons were made using an ANOVA analysis. Diabetes showed a risk association (p=0.001). However, a regression analysis confirmed that for the CAD cases, there was an association between the GG genotype and diabetes (p=0.005). Conclusion The results of this study suggest that the polymorphism rs10757278 is related to a high risk of CAD in a Saudi population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neda Bogari
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Anas Dannoun
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammad Athar
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.,Science and Technology Unit, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Osama Elkhateeb
- Department of Cardiology, King Abdullah Medical City Makkah, Makkah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.,Department of Cardiology, Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Massimo Porqueddu
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, King Fahd Armed Forces Hospital, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.,Department of Cardiac Surgery, Monzino Heart Center, University of Milan, Milano, Italy
| | - Reem Allam
- Clinical Pathology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Sharkia, Egypt
| | - Francesco Alamanni
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Monzino Heart Center, University of Milan, Milano, Italy
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Kaufman AC, Colquitt L, Ruckenstein MJ, Bigelow DC, Eliades SJ, Xiong G, Lin C, Reed DR, Cohen NA. Bitter Taste Receptors and Chronic Otitis Media. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2021; 165:290-299. [PMID: 33433247 DOI: 10.1177/0194599820984788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the presence of bitter taste receptors (T2Rs) in the middle ear and to examine their relationship with chronic ear infections. STUDY DESIGN Cross-sectional study. SETTING Tertiary care hospital. METHODS This study enrolled 84 patients being evaluated for otologic surgery: 40 for chronic otitis media (COM) and 44 for other surgical procedures (controls). We collected a small piece of mucosa from 14 patients for mRNA analysis and from 23 patients for immunohistochemistry. A total of 55 patients underwent a double-blind taste test to gauge sensitivity to phenylthiocarbamide, denatonium, quinine, sucrose, and sodium chloride; 47 patients gave a salivary sample for single-nucleotide polymorphism analysis of rs1376251 (TAS2R50) and rs1726866 (TAS2R38). RESULTS Bitter taste receptors were found in all samples, but the repertoire varied among patients. T2R50 was the most consistently identified receptor by mRNA analysis. Its rs1376251 allele was related to susceptibility to COM but not the expression pattern of T2R50. Ratings of bitterness intensity of phenylthiocarbamide, a ligand for T2R38, differed significantly between the COM and control groups. CONCLUSION T2Rs were found within the middle ear of every patient sampled; the rs1376251 allele of TAS2R50 appears to be related to chronic ear infections. These receptors are an intriguing target for future research and possible drug targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam C Kaufman
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Pennsylvania Health System, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Lauren Colquitt
- Division of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Michael J Ruckenstein
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Pennsylvania Health System, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Douglas C Bigelow
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Pennsylvania Health System, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Steven J Eliades
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Pennsylvania Health System, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Guoxiang Xiong
- Division of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Cailu Lin
- Monell Chemical Senses Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Danielle R Reed
- Monell Chemical Senses Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Noam A Cohen
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Pennsylvania Health System, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,Monell Chemical Senses Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,Corporal Michael J. Crescenz VA Medical Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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Bloxham CJ, Foster SR, Thomas WG. A Bitter Taste in Your Heart. Front Physiol 2020; 11:431. [PMID: 32457649 PMCID: PMC7225360 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The human genome contains ∼29 bitter taste receptors (T2Rs), which are responsible for detecting thousands of bitter ligands, including toxic and aversive compounds. This sentinel function varies between individuals and is underpinned by naturally occurring T2R polymorphisms, which have also been associated with disease. Recent studies have reported the expression of T2Rs and their downstream signaling components within non-gustatory tissues, including the heart. Though the precise role of T2Rs in the heart remains unclear, evidence points toward a role in cardiac contractility and overall vascular tone. In this review, we summarize the extra-oral expression of T2Rs, focusing on evidence for expression in heart; we speculate on the range of potential ligands that may activate them; we define the possible signaling pathways they activate; and we argue that their discovery in heart predicts an, as yet, unappreciated cardiac physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conor J Bloxham
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Simon R Foster
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Walter G Thomas
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
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Risso DS, Giuliani C, Antinucci M, Morini G, Garagnani P, Tofanelli S, Luiselli D. A bio-cultural approach to the study of food choice: The contribution of taste genetics, population and culture. Appetite 2017; 114:240-247. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2017.03.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Revised: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Ivanova AA, Maksimov VN, Orlov PS, Ivanoshchuk DE, Savchenko SV, Voevoda MI. Association of the genetic markers for myocardial infarction with sudden cardiac death. Indian Heart J 2017; 69 Suppl 1:S8-S11. [PMID: 28400043 PMCID: PMC5388015 DOI: 10.1016/j.ihj.2016.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Revised: 07/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Investigate the association of rs17465637 gene MIAF3 (1q41), rs1376251 gene TAS2R50 (12p13), rs4804611 gene ZNF627 (19p13), rs619203 gene ROS1 (6q22), rs1333049 (9p21), rs10757278 (9p21), rs2549513 (16q23), rs499818 (6p24) associated with myocardial infarction available from the international genome-wide studies with sudden cardiac death (SCD) in a case-control study. METHODS A sample of SCD cases (n=285) was formed using the WHO criteria; the control sample (n=421) was selected according to sex and age. DNA was isolated by phenol-chloroform extraction from the myocardial tissue of SCD cases and blood of control cases. The groups were genotyped for the selected SNPs by real-time PCR using TaqMan probes (Applied Biosystems, United States). RESULTS No statistically significant differences in the genotype and allelic frequencies of studied single nucleotide polymorphisms between sudden cardiac death cases and control were detectable in general group. By separating the groups of sex and age differences in the genotype frequencies of rs1333049, rs10757278 and rs499818 are statistical significance. Genotypes CC of rs1333049 and GG of rs10757278 are associated with an increased sudden cardiac death risk in men (p=0.019, OR=1.7, 95% CI 1.1-2.8; p=0.011, OR=1.8, 95% CI 1.2-2.8, respectively). Genotype AG of rs499818 is associated with an increased sudden cardiac death risk in the women over 50 years old (p=0.009, OR=2.4, 95% CI 1.3-4.6). CONCLUSION Polymorphisms rs1333049 and rs10757278 are associated with SCD in men and rs499818 in the women aged over 50 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasiya A Ivanova
- Federal State Budgetary of Scientific Institution "Institution of Internal and Preventive Medicine", Novosibirsk, Russia.
| | - Vladimir N Maksimov
- Federal State Budgetary of Scientific Institution "Institution of Internal and Preventive Medicine", Novosibirsk, Russia.
| | - Pavel S Orlov
- Federal State Budgetary of Scientific Institution "Institution of Internal and Preventive Medicine", Novosibirsk, Russia.
| | - Dinara E Ivanoshchuk
- Federal State Budgetary of Scientific Institution "Institution of Internal and Preventive Medicine", Novosibirsk, Russia.
| | - Sergei V Savchenko
- Novosibirsk Regional Office of Forensic Medical Examination, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Mikhail I Voevoda
- Federal State Budgetary of Scientific Institution "Institution of Internal and Preventive Medicine", Novosibirsk, Russia.
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Beckett EL, Martin C, Yates Z, Veysey M, Duesing K, Lucock M. Bitter taste genetics--the relationship to tasting, liking, consumption and health. Food Funct 2015; 5:3040-54. [PMID: 25286017 DOI: 10.1039/c4fo00539b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Bitter is the most complex of human tastes, and is arguably the most important. Aversion to bitter taste is important for detecting toxic compounds in food; however, many beneficial nutrients also taste bitter and these may therefore also be avoided as a consequence of bitter taste. While many polymorphisms in TAS2R genes may result in phenotypic differences that influence the range and sensitivity of bitter compounds detected, the full extent to which individuals differ in their abilities to detect bitter compounds remains unknown. Simple logic suggests that taste phenotypes influence food preferences, intake and consequently health status. However, it is becoming clear that genetics only plays a partial role in predicting preference, intake and health outcomes, and the complex, pleiotropic relationships involved are yet to be fully elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma L Beckett
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Newcastle, Brush Rd, Ourimbah, NSW 2258, Australia.
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Schembre SM, Cheng I, Wilkens LR, Albright CL, Le Marchand L. Variations in bitter-taste receptor genes, dietary intake, and colorectal adenoma risk. Nutr Cancer 2013; 65:982-90. [PMID: 24083639 PMCID: PMC3836614 DOI: 10.1080/01635581.2013.807934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Genetic variants in bitter-taste receptor genes have been hypothesized to negatively impact health outcomes and/or influence dietary intake and, consequently, could increase the risk of colorectal neoplasia. Using a case-control study of 914 colorectal adenoma cases/1188 controls, we explored associations among colorectal adenoma risk, dietary intake, and genetic variation in 3 bitter-taste receptor genes: TAS2R38 (rs713598, rs1726866, rs10246939), TAS2R16 (rs846672), and TAS2R50 (rs1376251). Analysis of covariance was conducted to detect trends in dietary intake across TAS2R genotypes/haplotypes. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were estimated by logistic regression to test gene-adenoma risk associations. No significant associations were observed between the TAS2R38 PAV/PAV diplotype or the TAS2R16 (rs846672) polymorphism with the selected diet variables. We observed weak inverse associations between the TAS2R50 (rs1376251) C allele and dietary fiber and vegetable intake (Ps < 0.015). Odds ratios for adenoma risk were not significantly different from the null. Our findings do not support a link between these TAS2R genotypes/haplotypes and dietary intake that could impact colorectal adenoma risk. However, given the paucity of data, we cannot dismiss the possibility that these genes may influence colorectal adenoma risk in other ways, such as through impaired gastrointestinal function, particularly in subgroups of the population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan M. Schembre
- Department of Behavioral Science, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, 77030, USA
| | - Iona Cheng
- Epidemiology Program, University of Hawaii Cancer Center, Honolulu, Hawaii 96813, USA
| | - Lynne R. Wilkens
- Epidemiology Program, University of Hawaii Cancer Center, Honolulu, Hawaii 96813, USA
| | - Cheryl L. Albright
- School of Nursing and Dental Hygiene, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii 96813
| | - Loïc Le Marchand
- Epidemiology Program, University of Hawaii Cancer Center, Honolulu, Hawaii 96813, USA
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González-Muniesa P, Marrades MP, Martínez JA, Moreno-Aliaga MJ. Differential proinflammatory and oxidative stress response and vulnerability to metabolic syndrome in habitual high-fat young male consumers putatively predisposed by their genetic background. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:17238-55. [PMID: 23975165 PMCID: PMC3794726 DOI: 10.3390/ijms140917238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2013] [Revised: 08/12/2013] [Accepted: 08/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The current nutritional habits and lifestyles of modern societies favor energy overloads and a diminished physical activity, which may produce serious clinical disturbances and excessive weight gain. In order to investigate the mechanisms by which the environmental factors interact with molecular mechanisms in obesity, a pathway analysis was performed to identify genes differentially expressed in subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue (SCAAT) from obese compared to lean male (21–35 year-old) subjects living in similar obesogenic conditions: habitual high fat dietary intake and moderate physical activity. Genes involved in inflammation (ALCAM, CTSB, C1S, YKL-40, MIF, SAA2), extracellular matrix remodeling (MMP9, PALLD), angiogenesis (EGFL6, leptin) and oxidative stress (AKR1C3, UCHL1, HSPB7 and NQO1) were upregulated; whereas apoptosis, signal transcription (CITED 2 and NR3C1), cell control and cell cycle-related genes were downregulated. Interestingly, the expression of some of these genes (C1S, SAA2, ALCAM, CTSB, YKL-40 and tenomodulin) was found to be associated with some relevant metabolic syndrome features. The obese group showed a general upregulation in the expression of inflammatory, oxidative stress, extracellular remodeling and angiogenic genes compared to lean subjects, suggesting that a given genetic background in an obesogenic environment could underlie the resistance to gaining weight and obesity-associated manifestations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro González-Muniesa
- Department of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Physiology, University of Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; E-Mails: (P.G.-M.); (M.P.M.); (J.A.M.)
- CIBERobn Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition, Centre of Biomedical Research Network, 29029 Madrid, Spain
| | - María Pilar Marrades
- Department of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Physiology, University of Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; E-Mails: (P.G.-M.); (M.P.M.); (J.A.M.)
| | - José Alfredo Martínez
- Department of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Physiology, University of Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; E-Mails: (P.G.-M.); (M.P.M.); (J.A.M.)
- CIBERobn Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition, Centre of Biomedical Research Network, 29029 Madrid, Spain
| | - María Jesús Moreno-Aliaga
- Department of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Physiology, University of Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; E-Mails: (P.G.-M.); (M.P.M.); (J.A.M.)
- CIBERobn Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition, Centre of Biomedical Research Network, 29029 Madrid, Spain
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +34-948-425-600 (ext. 806558); Fax: +34-948-425-740
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Jin L. The actin associated protein palladin in smooth muscle and in the development of diseases of the cardiovasculature and in cancer. J Muscle Res Cell Motil 2011; 32:7-17. [PMID: 21455759 DOI: 10.1007/s10974-011-9246-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2011] [Accepted: 03/22/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Palladin is an actin associated protein serving as a cytoskeleton scaffold, and actin cross linker, localizing at stress fibers, focal adhesions, and other actin based structures. Recent studies showed that palladin plays a critical role in smooth muscle differentiation, migration, contraction, and more importantly contributes to embryonic development. This review will focus on the functions and possible mechanisms of palladin in smooth muscle and in pathological conditions such as cardiovascular diseases and cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Jin
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA.
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