Impact of coronary artery calcium on cardiovascular risk categorization and lipid-lowering drug eligibility in asymptomatic hypercholesterolemic men

Quantitative Vascular Evaluation: From Laboratory Experiments to Point-of-Care Patient (Clinical Approach)

To enhance the efficiency of patient-specific risk stratification and diagnosis, an assessment of arterial structural and functional changes associated to a vascular disease in both early and advanced stages have been proposed, with the objective of limiting the progression or revert vascular alterations. In this connection, an interdisciplinary international partnership made up by research institutions from France, Argentina, Uruguay and Spain was established, with the objective of contributing to the evaluation and follow-up of factors involved in the physiopathology of cardiometabolic diseases and human aging. Several studies, such as the effect of hypertension in large arteries, alterations in arterial wall viscosity, stiffness and inertia, endothelial function and vascular reactivity, cardiovascular risk improvement, vascular age assessment and cryografts vascular response evaluation were carried out as a result of this international collaboration during the last twenty-five years.

Contribution of intestinal barrier damage, microbial translocation and HIV-1 infection status to an inflammaging signature

Background

Systemic inflammation is a characteristic of both HIV-1 infection and aging (“inflammaging”). Intestinal epithelial barrier damage (IEBD) and microbial translocation (MT) contribute to HIV-associated inflammation, but their impact on inflammaging remains unclear.

Methods

Plasma biomarkers for IEBD (iFABP), MT (LPS, sCD14), T-cell activation (sCD27), and inflammation (hsCRP, IL-6) were measured in 88 HIV-1 uninfected (HIV^neg) and 83 treated, HIV-1-infected (HIV^pos) adults from 20–100 years old.

Results

Age positively correlated with iFABP (r = 0.284, p = 0.008), sCD14 (r = 0.646, p = <0.0001) and LPS (r = 0.421, p = 0.0002) levels in HIV^neg but not HIV^pos subjects. Age also correlated with sCD27, hsCRP, and IL-6 levels regardless of HIV status. Middle-aged HIV^pos subjects had elevated plasma biomarker levels similar to or greater than those of elderly HIV^neg subjects with the exception of sCD14. Clustering analysis described an inflammaging phenotype (IP) based on iFABP, sCD14, sCD27, and hsCRP levels in HIV^neg subjects over 60 years of age. The IP in HIV^neg subjects was used to develop a classification model that was applied to HIV^pos subjects to determine whether HIV^pos subjects under 60 years of age were IP+. HIV^pos IP+ subjects were similar in age to IP- subjects but had a greater risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) based on Framingham risk score (p =  0.01).

Conclusions

We describe a novel IP that incorporates biomarkers of IEBD, MT, immune activation as well as inflammation. Application of this novel IP in HIV-infected subjects identified a group at higher risk of CVD.

Diagnostic value of nonenhanced multidetector computed tomography for ruling out acute aortic dissection in patients presenting with chest or back pain

BACKGROUND

Multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) is widely used for diagnosing acute aortic dissection (AAD). However, the diagnostic value of nonenhanced MDCT for AAD remains unknown. We evaluated the usefulness of nonenhanced 64-slice MDCT for ruling out AAD in patients presenting with chest or back pain.

METHODS

Of 107 patients with clinical suspicion of AAD who underwent MDCT, AAD was confirmed in 47 and ruled out in 60. Nonenhanced MDCT data of all patients were retrospectively assessed by 2 independent observers unaware of clinical information and contrast-enhanced MDCT data. The diagnostic performance of nonenhanced MDCT parameters to detect AAD was calculated.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Among the parameters, positive intimal flap, defined as the clear presence of a high-density membrane-like structure in the aorta on serial axial images, had a sensitivity of 87%, a specificity of 100%, a positive predictive value (PPV) of 100%, and a negative predictive value (NPV) of 91%, respectively. The addition of equivocal intimal flap, defined as the ambiguous presence of a high-density membrane-like structure in the aorta on at least one axial image, increased both the sensitivity and NPV to 96%. Furthermore, the combination of intimal flap (positive+equivocal or positive alone) and high-density area in the aorta showed the highest sensitivity (98%) and NPV (98%). Combination of the nonenhanced MDCT parameters intimal flap and high-density area in the aorta provides excellent sensitivity and NPV, suggesting that nonenhanced MDCT is an effective modality for ruling out AAD in patients with chest or back pain.

Three-dimensional evaluation of thoracic aorta enlargement and unfolding in hypertensive men using non-contrast computed tomography

Aging produces a simultaneous thoracic aorta (TA) enlargement and unfolding. We sought to analyze the impact of hypertension on these geometric changes. Non-contrast computed tomography images were obtained from coronary artery calcium scans, including the entire aortic arch, in 200 normotensive and 200 hypertensive asymptomatic men. An automated algorithm reconstructed the vessel in three-dimensions, estimating orthogonal aortic sections along the whole TA pathway, and calculated several geometric descriptors to assess TA morphology. Hypertensive patients were older with respect to normotensive (P<0.001). Diameter and volume of TA ascending, arch and descending segments were higher in hypertensive patients with respect to normotensive (P<0.001) and differences persisted after adjustment for age. Hypertension produced an accelerated unfolding effect on TA shape. We found increments in aortic arch width (P<0.001), radius of curvature (P<0.001) and area under the arch curve (P<0.01) with a concomitant tortuosity decrease (P<0.05) and no significant change in aortic arch height. Overall, hypertension produced an equivalent effect of 2-7-years of aging. In multivariate analysis adjusted for age and hypertension treatment, diastolic pressure was more associated to TA size and shape changes than systolic pressure. These data suggest that hypertension accelerates TA enlargement and unfolding deformation with respect to the aging effect.

An alternative method for quantifying coronary artery calcification: the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis (MESA)

Background

Extent of atherosclerosis measured by amount of coronary artery calcium (CAC) in computed tomography (CT) has been traditionally assessed using thresholded scoring methods, such as the Agatston score (AS). These thresholded scores have value in clinical prediction, but important information might exist below the threshold, which would have important advantages for understanding genetic, environmental, and other risk factors in atherosclerosis. We developed a semi-automated threshold-free scoring method, the spatially weighted calcium score (SWCS) for CAC in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA).

Methods

Chest CT scans were obtained from 6814 participants in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). The SWCS and the AS were calculated for each of the scans. Cox proportional hazards models and linear regression models were used to evaluate the associations of the scores with CHD events and CHD risk factors. CHD risk factors were summarized using a linear predictor.

Results

Among all participants and participants with AS > 0, the SWCS and AS both showed similar strongly significant associations with CHD events (hazard ratios, 1.23 and 1.19 per doubling of SWCS and AS; 95% CI, 1.16 to 1.30 and 1.14 to 1.26) and CHD risk factors (slopes, 0.178 and 0.164; 95% CI, 0.162 to 0.195 and 0.149 to 0.179). Even among participants with AS = 0, an increase in the SWCS was still significantly associated with established CHD risk factors (slope, 0.181; 95% CI, 0.138 to 0.224). The SWCS appeared to be predictive of CHD events even in participants with AS = 0, though those events were rare as expected.

Conclusions

The SWCS provides a valid, continuous measure of CAC suitable for quantifying the extent of atherosclerosis without a threshold, which will be useful for examining novel genetic and environmental risk factors for atherosclerosis.

Diagnostic accuracy of 320-slice computed-tomography for detection of significant coronary artery stenosis in patients with various heart rates and heart rhythms compared with conventional coronary-angiography

PURPOSE

To evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of 320-slice CT for detection of significant coronary artery stenosis in patients with various heart rates (HR) and heart rhythms, including tachycardia and chronic atrial-fibrillation (CAF) compared with conventional-coronary-angiography (CAG).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

One-hundred-six consecutive patients underwent both 320-slice CT and CAG within 3 months (normal-sinus-rhythm [NSR] 91.5%, CAF 8.5%, mean HR 65 ± 15 beats/min). There were no cardiac events between the 2 procedures. Patients were divided in 2 groups: Group 1 (HR <65 with NSR at CT scan, n=62), and Group 2 (HR >64 with NSR or heart rhythm irregularities at CT scan, n=44). Patients with >50% or >75% luminal stenosis on CT were compared with those with >50% or >75% stenosis on CAG, respectively.

RESULTS

In a segment-by-segment analysis, in all patients, sensitivity, specificity, positive (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV) of >50% stenosis on CT for predicting >50% stenosis on CAG were 69, 98, 78, and 97%, respectively, and those of >75% stenosis on CT for predicting >75% stenosis on CAG were 78, 98, 64, and 99%, respectively. Sensitivity, specificity, PPV, and NPV of >50% and 75% stenosis on CT for predicting >50% and >75% stenosis, respectively, on CAG were comparable. Diagnostic accuracy was essentially the same in both groups.

CONCLUSION

320-slice CT had high diagnostic accuracy for the detection of significant coronary artery stenosis compared with CAG. Even though the numbers were small, patients with high HR or heart rhythm irregularities might have essentially equivalent results to those with low HR with NSR.

Integrated e-Health approach based on vascular ultrasound and pulse wave analysis for asymptomatic atherosclerosis detection and cardiovascular risk stratification in the community

New strategies are urgently needed to identify subjects at increased risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ACVD) development or complications. A National Public University Center (CUiiDARTE) was created in Uruguay, based on six main pillars: 1) integration of experts in different disciplines and creation of multidisciplinary teams, 2) incidence in public and professional education programs to give training in the use of new technologies and to shift the focus from ACVD treatment to disease prevention, 3) implementation of free vascular studies in the community (distributed rather than centralized healthcare), 4) innovation and application of e-Health and noninvasive technology and approaches, 5) design and development of a biomedical approach to determine the target population and patient workflow, and 6) improvement in individual risk estimation and differentiation between aging and ACVD-related arterial changes using population-based epidemiological and statistical patient-specific models. This work describes main features of CUiiDARTE project implementation, the scientific and technological steps and innovations done for individual risk stratification, and sub-clinical ACVD diagnosis.

Primary prevention of coronary heart disease: integration of new data, evolving views, revised goals, and role of rosuvastatin in management. A comprehensive survey

A recent explosion in the amount of cardiovascular risk and incipient, undetected subclinical cardiovascular pathology has swept across the globe. Nearly 70% of adult Americans are overweight or obese; the prevalence of visceral obesity stands at 53% and continues to rise. At any one time, 55% of the population is on a weight-loss diet, and almost all fail. Fewer than 15% of adults or children exercise sufficiently, and over 60% engage in no vigorous activity. Among adults, 11%-13% have diabetes, 34% have hypertension, 36% have prehypertension, 36% have prediabetes, 12% have both prediabetes and prehypertension, and 15% of the population with either diabetes, hypertension, or dyslipidemia are undiagnosed. About one-third of the adult population, and 80% of the obese, have fatty livers. With 34% of children overweight or obese, prevalence having doubled in just a few years, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and fatty livers in children are at their highest levels ever. Half of adults have at least one cardiovascular risk factor. Not even 1% of the population attains ideal cardiovascular health. Despite falling coronary death rates for decades, coronary heart disease (CHD) death rates in US women 35 to 54 years of age may now be increasing because of the obesity epidemic. Up to 65% of patients do not have their conventional risk biomarkers under control. Only 30% of high risk patients with CHD achieve aggressive low density lipoprotein (LDL) targets. Of those patients with multiple risk factors, fewer than 10% have all of them adequately controlled. Even when patients are titrated to evidence-based targets, about 70% of cardiac events remain unaddressed. Undertreatment is also common. About two-thirds of high risk primary care patients are not taking needed medications for dyslipidemia. Poor patient adherence, typically below 50%, adds further difficulty. Hence, after all such fractional reductions are multiplied, only a modest portion of total cardiovascular risk burden is actually being eliminated, and the full potential of risk reduction remains unrealized. Worldwide the situation is similar, with the prevalence of metabolic syndrome approaching 50%. Primordial prevention, resulting from healthful lifestyle habits that do not permit the appearance of risk factors, is the preferred method to lower cardiovascular risk. Lowering the prevalence of obesity is the most urgent matter, and is pleiotropic since it affects blood pressure, lipid profiles, glucose metabolism, inflammation, and atherothrombotic disease progression. Physical activity also improves several risk factors, with the additional potential to lower heart rate. Given the current obstacles, success of primordial prevention remains uncertain. At the same time, the consequences of delay and inaction will inevitably be disastrous, and the sense of urgency mounts. Since most CHD events arise in a large subpopulation of low- to moderate-risk individuals, identifying a high proportion of those who will go on to develop events with accuracy remains unlikely. Without a refinement in risk prediction, the current model of targeting high-risk individuals for aggressive therapy may not succeed alone, especially given the rising burden of risk. Estimating cardiovascular risk over a period of 10 years, using scoring systems such as Framingham or SCORE, continues to enjoy widespread use and is recommended for all adults. Limitations in the former have been of concern, including the under- or over-estimation of risk in specific populations, a relatively short 10-year risk horizon, focus on myocardial infarction and CHD death, and exclusion of family history. Classification errors may occur in up to 37% of individuals, particularly women and the young. Several different scoring systems are discussed in this review. The use of lifetime risk is an important conceptual advance, since ≥90% of young adults with a low 10-year risk have a lifetime risk of ≥39%; over half of all American adults have a low 10-year risk but a high lifetime risk. At age 50 the absence of traditional risk factors is associated with extremely low lifetime risk and significantly greater longevity. Pathological and epidemiological data confirm that atherosclerosis begins in early childhood, and advances seamlessly and inexorably throughout life. Risk factors in childhood are similar to those in adults, and track between stages of life. When indicated, aggressive treatment should begin at the earliest indication, and be continued for years. For those patients at intermediate risk according to global risk scores, C-reactive protein (CRP), coronary artery calcium (CAC), and carotid intima-media thickness (CIMT) are available for further stratification. Using statins for primary prevention is recommended by guidelines, is prevalent, but remains underprescribed. Statin drugs are unrivaled, evidence-based, major weapons to lower cardiovascular risk. Even when low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) targets are attained, over half of patients continue to have disease progression and clinical events. This residual risk is of great concern, and multiple sources of remaining risk exist. Though clinical evidence is incomplete, altering or raising the blood high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) level continues to be pursued. Of all agents available, rosuvastatin produces the greatest reduction in LDL-C, LDL-P, and improvement in apoA-I/apoB, together with a favorable safety profile. Several recent proposals and methods to lower cardiovascular risk are reviewed. A combination of approaches, such as the addition of lifetime risk, refinement of risk prediction, guideline compliance, novel treatments, improvement in adherence, and primordial prevention, including environmental and social intervention, will be necessary to lower the present high risk burden.