Coagulation changes in takotsubo cardiomyopathy support acute phase reaction and catecholamine excess, but not thrombus production

An incidental danger: Left ventricular thrombus in takotsubo syndrome

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy is a potentially lethal condition characterized by transient regional systolic dysfunction in the absence of coronary artery ischemia. This syndrome predominantly affects postmenopausal women and is often preceded by physical or emotional stress and often presents with symptoms of acute coronary syndrome, chest pain, and shortness of breath. Although the effects can be transient, takotsubo cardiomyopathy still results in an 8-12% rate of in-hospital mortality, with cardiogenic shock being the most common cause of death. There are known risk factors that increase the likelihood of a patient developing a left ventricular thrombus during the clinical course. The management of these cases is discussed in this report.

Transient stress-related hyperviscosity and endothelial dysfunction in Takotsubo syndrome: a time course study

Takotsubo syndrome (TTS) is an acute and usually reversible heart failure syndrome, frequently associated with emotional or physical stress. Its pathophysiology remains largely unclear, although several mechanisms related to catecholaminergic storm have been proposed. In this study we analyzed during the acute phase of TTS and at follow-up both hemorheological parameters and biomarkers of endothelial damage, whose time course has never been fully explored. In 50 TTS women, we analyzed several hemorheological parameters [whole blood viscosity (WBV) at 0.512 s^-1 and at 94.5 s^-1, plasma viscosity (PLV), erythrocyte deformability and aggregation index] as well as biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction [von Willebrand Factor (vWF), Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and factor VIII levels] during the acute phase and after a median 6 months follow-up. These variables were also assessed in 50 age-matched healthy women. Respect to follow-up, in the acute phase of TTS we observed higher values of white blood cell count, fibrinogen, WBV at low and high shear rates, PLV, erythrocyte aggregation index and lower values of erythrocyte elongation index. Moreover, all biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction resulted significantly higher in the acute phase. During follow-up WBV at 94.5 s^-1, erythrocyte elongation index and vWF resulted significantly altered with respect to controls. The results of this study confirm the role of hyperviscosity and endothelial dysfunction in TTS pathophysiology. Moreover, they suggest the persistence of alterations of erythrocyte deformability and endothelial dysfunction even beyond the acute phase that could be the target of therapeutic strategies also during follow-up.

Association Between Mortality and Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction in Patients With Takotsubo Syndrome Versus Acute Coronary Syndrome

BACKGROUND/AIM

The association between ejection fraction (EF) and mortality in TTS patients as compared to ACS is limited. This study aims to investigate the association between EF and clinical outcomes in patients with TTS as compared to ACS.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This study compared in-hospital, and long-term incidence of clinical outcomes for 5 years in patients with TTS and ACS. The study was composed of two groups EF≥35% and EF<35%.

RESULTS

The long-term mortality of the EF≥35% for 5 years was significantly higher in TTS patients as compared to ACS (18.1% vs. 7.7%, log-Rank; p<0.01). Irrespective of EF, a non-cardiovascular death was significantly higher in TTS as compared to ACS patients with EF≥35 (6.4% vs. 2.1%; p=0.02) and with EF<35% (21.4% vs. 7.5%; p=0.03).

CONCLUSION

The long-term mortality is significantly higher in TTS as compared to ACS dominated by a non-cardiovascular cause of death at 5-years-follow-up.

Short- and Long-Term Incidence of Thromboembolic Events in Takotsubo Syndrome as Compared With Acute Coronary Syndrome

Thromboembolic events are a common complication in Takotsubo syndrome (TTS). However, their long-term incidence compared with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) is lacking. In-hospital and long-term incidence of thromboembolic events of 138 consecutive patients with TTS were compared with 138 sex- and age-matched patients with ACS. Predictors of events were analyzed. The incidence of thromboembolic events in TTS was 2-fold higher than ACS (21% vs 9%; P < .01) over a mean follow-up of 5 years. Although the left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) at event was significantly lower in TTS compared with ACS (38% [9%] vs 54% [11%]; P < .01), the follow-up LVEF was comparable. Patients with TTS suffering from thromboembolic events were more often treated with anticoagulation compared with ACS (44.8% vs 8.3%, P = .03). However, more patients presenting with ACS (100% vs 48.3%; P < .01) were discharged on aspirin. Only elevated C-reactive protein was a predictor of thromboembolic events using multivariate analysis (hazard ratio 1.1, 95% confidence interval, 1.0-1.2; P < .01). In conclusion, the risk of thromboembolic events in TTS was significantly higher than the risk of thromboembolic events in ACS over a mean follow-up of 5 years.

Takotsubo Syndrome and Embolic Events

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TTC), initially defined as a benign disease, is associated with several complications. One of them is a thromboembolism, which is clinically presented by events such as stroke, ventricular thrombi, and peripheral embolization, and can be present at index event of TCC as well as at any time in disease course. Patients with elevated C-reactive protein levels, markedly elevated D-dimers and severely impaired left ventricular function seem to be at higher risk of developing thrombemboli. Treatment strategies prescribed in the management of thombembolic complications in patients with acute myocardial infarction includes a short course of anticoagulation. A similar analogy could also be considered for patients with TTC presenting with this complications. Nevertheless, an individualized close-follow-up is of utmost importance to avoid any relapse and not to oversee any impeding complications in light of dynamic processes in myocardial stunning.

Prevalence, Clinical Characteristics, and Predictors of Patients with Thromboembolic Events in Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy

BACKGROUND

Several acute complications related to takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TTC) have been documented recently. However, the incidence and clinical significance of acute thromboembolic events in TTC is not well established.

METHODS

A detailed investigation of the clinical characteristics and in-hospital complications of 114 consecutive patients diagnosed with TTC between January 2003 and September 2015 was carried out. This study was initiated to reveal the predictors, clinical significance, and short-term and long-term outcomes of patients with TTC associated with acute thromboembolic events on index presentation.

RESULTS

The incidence of acute thromboembolic events related to TTC was around 12.2%, and these included ventricular thrombi, cerebrovascular events, retinal and brachial artery pathologies, renal, splenic, and aortic involvement. The most frequent complication on initial presentation was cardiogenic shock (20%) accompanied with pulmonary congestion (20%). Interestingly, patients experiencing thromboembolic events had higher C-reactive protein (CRP) levels as compared to the non-thromboembolic group (P = 0.02). Certain thromboembolic events were characterized by the presence of ST-segment elevation in electrocardiogram (P = 0.02). Chest pain was the primary symptom in these patients (P = 0.09). Furthermore, there was significant right ventricular involvement (as assessed by transthoracic echocardiography) in patients presenting with an acute thromboembolic event (P = 0.08). A Kaplan–Meier analysis indicated a significantly higher mortality rate over a mean follow-up of three years in the thromboembolic group than the non-thromboembolic group (log-rank, P = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results confirmed the relative common occurrence of thromboembolic events in the setting of TTC. Inflammation might play an important role in the development of thromboembolic events, and a right ventricular involvement and ST-segment elevation could be positive predictors for this occurrence. In order to circumvent the risk of a negative outcome, it is recommended that an anticoagulation therapy be initiated in all high-risk patients.