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Zhang X, Li CX, Yan Y, Nair G, Rilling JK, Herndon JG, Preuss TM, Hu X, Li L. In-vivo diffusion MRI protocol optimization for the chimpanzee brain and examination of aging effects on the primate optic nerve at 3T. Magn Reson Imaging 2020; 77:194-203. [PMID: 33359631 DOI: 10.1016/j.mri.2020.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Diffusion MRI (dMRI) data acquisition protocols are well-established on modern high-field clinical scanners for human studies. However, these protocols are not suitable for the chimpanzee (or other large-brained mammals) because of its substantial difference in head geometry and brain volume compared with humans. Therefore, an optimal dMRI data acquisition protocol dedicated to chimpanzee neuroimaging is needed. METHODS A multi-shot (4 segments) double spin-echo echo-planar imaging (MS-EPI) sequence and a single-shot double spin-echo EPI (SS-EPI) sequence were optimized separately for in vivo dMRI data acquisition of chimpanzees using a clinical 3T scanner. Correction for severe susceptibility-induced image distortion and signal drop-off of the chimpanzee brain was performed and evaluated using FSL software. DTI indices in different brain regions and probabilistic tractography were compared. A separate DTI data set from n=34 chimpanzees (13 to 56 years old) was collected using the optimal protocol. Age-related changes in diffusivity indices of optic nerve fibers were evaluated. RESULTS The SS-EPI sequence acquired dMRI data of the chimpanzee brain with approximately doubled the SNR as the MS-EPI sequence given the same scan time. The quality of white matter fiber tracking from the SS-EPI data was much higher than that from MS-EPI data. However, quantitative analysis of DTI indices showed no difference in most ROIs between the SS-EPI and MS-EPI sequences. The progressive evolution of diffusivity indices of optic nerves indicated mild changes in fiber bundles of chimpanzees aged 40 years and above. CONCLUSION The single-shot EPI-based acquisition protocol provided better image quality of dMRI for chimpanzee brains and is recommended for in vivo dMRI study or clinical diagnosis of chimpanzees (or other large animals) using a clinical scanner. Also, the tendency of FA decrease or diffusivity increase in the optic nerve of aged chimpanzees was seen but did not show significant age-related changes, suggesting aging may have less impact on optic nerve fiber integrity of chimpanzees, in contrast to previous results for both macaque monkeys and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodong Zhang
- Yerkes Imaging Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America; Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America.
| | - Chun-Xia Li
- Yerkes Imaging Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Yumei Yan
- Yerkes Imaging Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Govind Nair
- qMRI Core Facility, NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, United States of America
| | - James K Rilling
- Department of Anthropology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America; Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - James G Herndon
- Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Todd M Preuss
- Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Xiaoping Hu
- Dept of Bioengineering, University of California, Riverside, CA, United States of America
| | - Longchuan Li
- Marcus Autism Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America.
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Yang J, Li Q, Han D, Liao C, Wang P, Gao J, Xu Z, Liu Y. Radiation-induced impairment of optic nerve axonal transport in tree shrews and rats monitored by longitudinal manganese-enhanced MRI. Neurotoxicology 2020; 77:145-154. [PMID: 31987859 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2020.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Revised: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Radiation-induced optic neuropathy (RION) is a serious complication that occurs after radiation therapy of tumors in the vicinity of the optic nerve, yet its mechanism and imaging features are poorly understood. In this study, we employed manganese-enhanced MRI (MEMRI) to assess optic nerve axonal transport in tree shrews and rats after irradiation. MATERIALS AND METHODS A comparison of normal visual projections in tree shrews and rats was conducted by intravitreal MnCl2 injection followed by MRI. Adult male tree shrews and rats received a total dose of 20 Gy delivered in two fractions (10 Gy per fraction) within 5 days. Longitudinal MEMRI was conducted 5, 10, 20 and 30 weeks after radiation. At the end of observation, motor proteins involved in axonal transport were detected by western blotting, and the axon cytoskeleton was assessed by immunofluorescence. RESULTS The eyeballs, lens sizes, vitreous volumes, optic nerves and superior colliculi of tree shrews were significantly larger than those of rats on MEMRI (P < 0.05). The Mn2+-enhancement of the optic nerve showed no significant changes at 5 and 10 weeks (P > 0.05) but decreased gradually from 20 to 30 weeks postirradiation (P < 0.05). The enhancement of the superior colliculus gradually decreased from 5 weeks to 30 weeks, and the decrease was most significant at 30 weeks (P < 0.05). The levels of the motor proteins cytoplasmic dynein-1, kinesin-1 and kinesin-2 in the experimental group were significantly decreased (P < 0.05). The immunofluorescence results showed that the α-tubulin, β-tubulin and SMI 31 levels in the experimental groups and control groups were not significantly different (P > 0.05). CONCLUSION Tree shrews show great advantages in visual neuroscience research involving MEMRI. The main cause of the decline in axonal transport in RION is an insufficient level of motor protein rather than damage to the axonal cytoskeletal structure. Longitudinal MEMRI can be used to detect changes in axonal transport function and to observe the relatively intact axon structure from the early to late stages after radiation administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Yang
- Department of Radiology. The Third Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Yunnan Cancer Hospital & Cancer Center, No. 519 Kunzhou Road, Xishan District, Kunming, 650118, Yunnan, PR China.
| | - Qinqing Li
- Department of Radiology. The Third Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Yunnan Cancer Hospital & Cancer Center, No. 519 Kunzhou Road, Xishan District, Kunming, 650118, Yunnan, PR China
| | - Dan Han
- Department of Medical Imaging. The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, No. 295 Xichang Road, Kunming, 650032, Yunnan, PR China
| | - Chengde Liao
- Department of Radiology. The Third Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Yunnan Cancer Hospital & Cancer Center, No. 519 Kunzhou Road, Xishan District, Kunming, 650118, Yunnan, PR China
| | - Pengfei Wang
- Department of Key Laboratory. The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, No. 374 Dianmian Road, Kunming, 650101, Yunnan, PR China
| | - Jingyan Gao
- Department of Radiation Oncology. The Third Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Yunnan Cancer Hospital & Cancer Center, No. 519 Kunzhou Road, Xishan District, Kunming, 650118, Yunnan, PR China
| | - Zeyan Xu
- Department of Radiology. The Third Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Yunnan Cancer Hospital & Cancer Center, No. 519 Kunzhou Road, Xishan District, Kunming, 650118, Yunnan, PR China
| | - Yifan Liu
- Department of Radiology. The Third Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Yunnan Cancer Hospital & Cancer Center, No. 519 Kunzhou Road, Xishan District, Kunming, 650118, Yunnan, PR China
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Wang R, Zhong Y, Tang W, Tang Z, Sun X, Feng X, Fan J, Wu L, Wang J, Xiao Z, Jin L. Evaluation of changes in magnetic resonance diffusion tensor imaging of the bilateral optic tract in monocular blind rats. Int J Dev Neurosci 2017; 59:10-14. [PMID: 28242183 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2017.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2017] [Revised: 02/23/2017] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Some studies have used diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to investigate white matter development of the visual pathway in humans and animals after visual deprivation. However, the alterations in the bilateral optic tract after the transection of unilateral optic nerve have not been well explored. In this study, we attempted to investigate the structural integrity of and pathological changes to the bilateral optic tract after transection of the unilateral optic nerve in rats using DTI. Eight healthy male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were randomly divided into 2 groups, with 4 in each group. Group A served as a control group. Transection of the unilateral (right) optic nerve was performed in the four rats in group B at seven days after birth to establish the early monocular blind model. Four months after the operation, MnCl2 was injected into the left eyes of all rats, and MRI examinations were performed 24h after injection. We detect the fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), axial diffusivity (AD), and radial diffusivity (RD) values of the bilateral optic tract in all rats. In a comparison of the ipsilateral optic tract of group B with group A, a significant decrease in FA (P<0.001) and an increase in RD (P<0.01) of the left optic tract were found in group B, while no significant difference was found in the right optic tract. In group B, the FA and RD values of the left optic tract were significantly lower (P<0.01) and significantly higher (P<0.05), respectively, than those of the right optic tract. Consequently, transection of the right optic nerve can lead to structural integrity damage of and pathological changes to the left optic tract in rats. Some DTI-derived parameters (such as FA and RD) may serve as biomarkers of optic tract degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Wang
- Department of Radiology, Eye & ENT Hospital of Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Yufeng Zhong
- Department of Radiology, Eye & ENT Hospital of Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China; Department of Radiology, Jinshan Hospital of Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200540, China
| | - Weijun Tang
- Department of Radiology, Huashan Hospital of Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Zuohua Tang
- Department of Radiology, Eye & ENT Hospital of Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China.
| | - Xinghuai Sun
- Department of Ophthalmology & Visual Science, Eye & ENT Hospital of Shanghai Medical School, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Key Laboratory of Myopia, NHFPC (Fudan University), and Shanghai Key Laboratory of Visual Impairment and Restoration (Fudan University), Shanghai 200031, China.
| | - Xiaoyuan Feng
- Department of Radiology, Huashan Hospital of Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Jiawen Fan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Eye & ENT Hospital of Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Lingjie Wu
- Department of Otolaryngology, Eye & ENT Hospital of Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Jie Wang
- Department of Radiotherapy, Eye & ENT Hospital of Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Zebin Xiao
- Department of Radiology, Eye & ENT Hospital of Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Lixin Jin
- Siemens Ltd. Healthcare sector, Shanghai, 201318, China
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Zhong YF, Tang ZH, Qiang JW, Wu LJ, Wang R, Wang J, Jin LX, Xiao ZB. Changes in DTI parameters in the optic tracts of macaque monkeys with monocular blindness. Neurosci Lett 2016; 636:248-253. [PMID: 27864005 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2016.11.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Revised: 10/19/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
For humans and non-human primates, the alteration of the visual pathway's white matter fibers after visual deprivation has been partially explored. However, the changes in the optic tracts after the transection of the optic nerve have not been well characterized. In the current study, we attempted to investigate the differences in optic tracts between normal and unilateral optic nerve transected macaque monkeys using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). Four healthy neonatal macaque monkeys were randomly divided into 2 groups, with 2 in each group. Group A served as a control group, and Group B underwent unilateral (right eye) optic nerve transection to produce monocular blindness. Sixteen months (Group B16M) and thirty-two months (Group B32M) after optic nerve transection, diffusion tensor imaging was performed on all monkeys. Then, we compared fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), axial diffusivity (AD) and radial diffusivity (RD) in bilateral optic tracts between Group A and Group B and between Group B16M and Group B32M. In both Group B16M and Group B32M, when compared with normal monkeys in Group A, FA was decreased and MD, AD and RD were increased in the bilateral optic tracts of monkeys with monocular blindness. Furthermore, compared with Group B16M, FA was reduced and MD, AD, RD were more obviously increased in the bilateral optic tracts of Group B32M, and noticeable differences in MD, AD and RD were found between the left and right optic tracts in group B32M. We believe that the results of this study would be helpful in investigation of the histological abnormalities of the integrity damage, axonal degeneration and demyelination of optic tracts in macaque monkeys with monocular blindness by DTI parameters in noninvasively and quantitatively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Feng Zhong
- Department of Radiology, Jinshan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; Department of Radiology, Eye and ENT Hospital of Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zuo-Hua Tang
- Department of Radiology, Eye and ENT Hospital of Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Jin-Wei Qiang
- Department of Radiology, Jinshan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Ling-Jie Wu
- Department of Otolaryngology, Eye and ENT Hospital of Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Rong Wang
- Department of Radiology, Eye and ENT Hospital of Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jie Wang
- Department of Radiotherapy, Eye and ENT Hospital of Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Li-Xin Jin
- Siemens Ltd. Healthcare Sector, Shanghai, China
| | - Ze-Bin Xiao
- Department of Radiology, Eye and ENT Hospital of Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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Fan SM, Chen W, Xiong L, Xia Y, Xie YB, Chen J. Magnetic resonance diffusion tensor imaging study of rhesus optic nerve radiation injury caused by a single dose/fractionation scheme stereotactic radiosurgery at an early stage. J Neuroradiol 2015; 43:207-13. [PMID: 26726930 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurad.2015.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2015] [Revised: 10/10/2015] [Accepted: 10/24/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Radiation-induced optic neuropathy (RION) is a devastating late complication of radiotherapy. However, research on the imaging performance of RION is not sufficient. The aim of this study was to investigate the performance of magnetic resonance diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) early after injury of the optic nerve of rhesus monkeys by a single-dose/fractionation-scheme of stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS). MATERIALS AND METHODS The intraorbital optic nerve contour of 5 rhesus monkeys was acquired by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Then, the unilateral intraorbital optic nerves of 5 rhesus monkeys were injured by gamma knife surgery (GKS) with a single-dose/fractionation scheme (marginal dose of 15Gy, 50% isodose curve). DTI was performed before the irradiation and 1week, 2weeks, 4weeks, and 24weeks after injury to obtain the cross-sectional area, and the fractional anisotropy (FA), apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC), axial diffusivity (AD) and radial diffusivity (RD) values. RESULTS The cross-sectional area of the injured optic nerve exhibited significant atrophy 24weeks after SRS. FA declined 1week after injury; this value then increased slightly but remained lower than before injury (P<0.05). AD began to decline in the 2weeks after injury and gradually disappeared (P<0.05). CONCLUSION SRS with a single-dose/fractionation scheme (marginal dose of 15Gy, 50% isodose curve) on the unilateral intraorbital optic nerve can induce RION. DTI can detect RION at an early stage. FA and AD are useful indicators for RION diagnosis. In the early stage, the primary site of RION may be the vascular endothelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Min Fan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sichuan University, West China Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, PR China
| | - Wei Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sichuan University, West China Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, PR China
| | - Li Xiong
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, PR China
| | - Yong Xia
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sichuan University, West China Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, PR China
| | - Yue Bin Xie
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sichuan University, West China Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, PR China
| | - Jing Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sichuan University, West China Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, PR China.
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Meng Y, Zhang X. Transcallosal connectivity changes from infancy to late adulthood: an ex vivo diffusion spectrum imaging study of macaque brains. Brain Connect 2014; 5:147-55. [PMID: 25389564 DOI: 10.1089/brain.2014.0285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Interhemispheric communication plays a critical role to ensure normal brain functions in cognition and behavior. Since non-human primate (NHP) brains resemble most aspects of the human brain, a thorough knowledge of interhemispheric cortical connectivity changes in NHP brains throughout the developmental and aging periods may provide valuable insights for translational and clinical research. In this study, formalin-fixed rhesus monkey brains aged from 1 to 24 years were utilized to examine transcallosal connectivity changes using diffusion spectrum imaging (DSI). It was found that the transcallosal connectivity for most frontal cortical areas, including dorso- and ventro-lateral prefrontal, premotor, and motor cortices, demonstrated pronounced age-related alterations. However, such a pattern was less obvious in temporal, posterior parietal, and visual cortices. The DSI results reveal the age-related evolution pattern of transcallosal connectivity in various cortical areas of macaque brains from infancy to late adulthood, and may have implications for assessing the functional defects or alterations in the associated cortical areas during brain development and aging in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuguang Meng
- 1 Yerkes Imaging Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University , Atlanta, Georgia
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Meng Y, Zhang X. In vivo diffusion spectrum imaging of non-human primate brain: initial experience in transcallosal fiber examination. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2014; 4:129-35. [PMID: 24834425 DOI: 10.3978/j.issn.2223-4292.2014.04.05] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In comparison with conventional diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) technique, diffusion spectrum imaging (DSI) allows for delineating crossing and touching fibers in the brain and has been explored in clinical and preclinical studies. Non-human primates (NHPs) resemble most aspects of human and are widely employed in various neuroscience researches and pharmaceutical development. In the present study, a parallel imaging-based DSI protocol was implemented for in vivo fiber tracking of macaque monkey brains on a 3.0 T clinical scanner. Transcallosal fiber tracts of adult macaque brains were examined with DSI and compared with those from a a conventional DTI protocol. The results demonstrate that DSI can reveal the transcallosal fiber bundles much more extensively than the conventional DTI. The preliminary results suggest that DSI may provide a feasible and robust approach for characterizing the fiber pathways in various disease models of NHPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuguang Meng
- 1 Yerkes Imaging Center, 2 Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, USA
| | - Xiaodong Zhang
- 1 Yerkes Imaging Center, 2 Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, USA
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Yan Y, Li L, Preuss TM, Hu X, Herndon JG, Zhang X. In vivo evaluation of optic nerve aging in adult rhesus monkey by diffusion tensor imaging. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2014; 4:43-9. [PMID: 24649434 DOI: 10.3978/j.issn.2223-4292.2014.02.04] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2014] [Accepted: 02/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Aging of the optic nerve can result in reduced visual sensitivity or vision loss. Normal optic nerve aging has been investigated previously in tissue specimens but poorly explored in vivo. In the present study, the normal aging of optic nerve was evaluated by diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) in non-human primates. Adult female rhesus monkeys at the ages of 9 to 13 years old (young group, n=8) and 21 to 27 years old (old group, n=7) were studied using parallel-imaging-based DTI on a clinical 3T scanner. Compared to young adults, the old monkeys showed 26% lower fractional anisotropy (P<0.01), and 44% greater radial diffusivity, although the latter difference was of marginal statistical significance (P=0.058). These MRI findings are largely consistent with published results of light and electron microscopic studies of optic nerve aging in macaque monkeys, which indicate a loss of fibers and degenerative changes in myelin sheaths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yumei Yan
- 1 Yerkes Imaging Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, USA ; 2 Marcus Autism Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA ; 3 Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, USA ; 4 The Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Longchuan Li
- 1 Yerkes Imaging Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, USA ; 2 Marcus Autism Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA ; 3 Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, USA ; 4 The Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Todd M Preuss
- 1 Yerkes Imaging Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, USA ; 2 Marcus Autism Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA ; 3 Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, USA ; 4 The Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Xiaoping Hu
- 1 Yerkes Imaging Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, USA ; 2 Marcus Autism Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA ; 3 Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, USA ; 4 The Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - James G Herndon
- 1 Yerkes Imaging Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, USA ; 2 Marcus Autism Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA ; 3 Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, USA ; 4 The Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Xiaodong Zhang
- 1 Yerkes Imaging Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, USA ; 2 Marcus Autism Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA ; 3 Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, USA ; 4 The Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
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