Rare occurrence of heterotrophic bacteria with pathogenic potential in potable water

Versatility of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia: Ecological roles of RND efflux pumps

S. maltophilia is a widely distributed bacterium found in natural, anthropized and clinical environments. The genome of this opportunistic pathogen of environmental origin includes a large number of genes encoding RND efflux pumps independently of the clinical or environmental origin of the strains. These pumps have been historically associated with the uptake of antibiotics and clinically relevant molecules because they confer resistance to many antibiotics. However, considering the environmental origin of S. maltophilia, the ecological role of these pumps needs to be clarified. RND efflux systems are highly conserved within bacteria and encountered both in pathogenic and non-pathogenic species. Moreover, their evolutionary origin, conservation and multiple copies in bacterial genomes suggest a primordial role in cellular functions and environmental adaptation. This review is aimed at elucidating the ecological role of S. maltophilia RND efflux pumps in the environmental context and providing an exhaustive description of the environmental niches of S. maltophilia. By looking at the substrates and functions of the pumps, we propose different involvements and roles according to the adaptation of the bacterium to various niches. We highlight that i°) regulatory mechanisms and inducer molecules help to understand the conditions leading to their expression, and ii°) association and functional redundancy of RND pumps and other efflux systems demonstrate their complex role within S. maltophilia cells. These observations emphasize that RND efflux pumps play a role in the versatility of S. maltophilia.

Benefits of Genomic Insights and CRISPR-Cas Signatures to Monitor Potential Pathogens across Drinking Water Production and Distribution Systems

The occurrence of pathogenic bacteria in drinking water distribution systems (DWDSs) is a major health concern, and our current understanding is mostly related to pathogenic species such as Legionella pneumophila and Mycobacterium avium but not to bacterial species closely related to them. In this study, genomic-based approaches were used to characterize pathogen-related species in relation to their abundance, diversity, potential pathogenicity, genetic exchange, and distribution across an urban drinking water system. Nine draft genomes recovered from 10 metagenomes were identified as Legionella (4 draft genomes), Mycobacterium (3 draft genomes), Parachlamydia (1 draft genome), and Leptospira (1 draft genome). The pathogenicity potential of these genomes was examined by the presence/absence of virulence machinery, including genes belonging to Type III, IV, and VII secretion systems and their effectors. Several virulence factors known to pathogenic species were detected with these retrieved draft genomes except the Leptospira-related genome. Identical clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-CRISPR-associated proteins (CRISPR-Cas) genetic signatures were observed in two draft genomes recovered at different stages of the studied system, suggesting that the spacers in CRISPR-Cas could potentially be used as a biomarker in the monitoring of Legionella related strains at an evolutionary scale of several years across different drinking water production and distribution systems. Overall, metagenomics approach was an effective and complementary tool of culturing techniques to gain insights into the pathogenic characteristics and the CRISPR-Cas signatures of pathogen-related species in DWDSs.

Pathogenic features of heterotrophic plate count bacteria from drinking-water boreholes

Evidence suggests that heterotrophic plate count (HPC) bacteria may be hazardous to humans with weakened health. We investigated the pathogenic potential of HPC bacteria from untreated borehole water, consumed by humans, for: their haemolytic properties, the production of extracellular enzymes such as DNase, proteinase, lipase, lecithinase, hyaluronidase and chondroitinase, the effect simulated gastric fluid has on their survival, as well as the bacteria's antibiotic-susceptible profile. HuTu-80 cells acted as model for the human intestine and were exposed to the HPC isolates to determine their effects on the viability of the cells. Several HPC isolates were α- or β-haemolytic, produced two or more extracellular enzymes, survived the SGF treatment, and showed resistance against selected antibiotics. The isolates were also harmful to the human intestinal cells to varying degrees. A novel pathogen score was calculated for each isolate. Bacillus cereus had the highest pathogen index: the pathogenicity of the other bacteria declined as follows: Aeromonas taiwanensis > Aeromonas hydrophila > Bacillus thuringiensis > Alcaligenes faecalis > Pseudomonas sp. > Bacillus pumilus > Brevibacillus sp. > Bacillus subtilis > Bacillus sp. These results demonstrated that the prevailing standards for HPCs in drinking water may expose humans with compromised immune systems to undue risk.

Heterotrophic bacteria in drinking water distribution system: a review

The microbiological quality of drinking water in municipal water distribution systems (WDS) depends on several factors. Free residual chlorine and/or chloramines are typically used to minimize bacterial recontamination and/or regrowth in WDS. Despite such preventive measures, regrowth of heterotrophic (HPC) and opportunistic bacteria in bulk water and biofilms has yet to be controlled completely. No approach has shown complete success in eliminating biofilms or HPC bacteria from bulk water and pipe surfaces. Biofilms can provide shelter for pathogenic bacteria and protect these bacteria from disinfectants. Some HPC bacteria may be associated with aesthetic and non-life threatening diseases. Research to date has achieved important success in understanding occurrence and regrowth of bacteria in bulk water and biofilms in WDS. To achieve comprehensive understanding and to provide efficient control against bacteria regrowth, future research on bacteria regrowth dynamics and their implications is warranted. In this study, a review was performed on the literature published in this area. The findings and limitations of these papers are summarized. Occurrences of bacteria in WDS, factors affecting bacteria regrowth in bulk water and biofilms, bacteria control strategies, sources of nutrients, human health risks from bacterial exposure, modelling of bacteria regrowth and methods of bacteria sampling and detection and quantification are investigated. Advances to date are noted, and future research needs are identified. Finally, research directions are proposed to effectively control HPC and opportunistic bacteria in bulk water and biofilms in WDS.

The effects of metabolite molecules produced by drinking water-isolated bacteria on their single and multispecies biofilms

The elucidation of the mechanisms by which diverse species survive and interact in drinking water (DW) biofilm communities may allow the identification of new biofilm control strategies. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of metabolite molecules produced by bacteria isolated from DW on biofilm formation. Six opportunistic bacteria, viz. Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, Burkholderia cepacia, Methylobacterium sp., Mycobacterium mucogenicum, Sphingomonas capsulata and Staphylococcus sp. isolated from a drinking water distribution systems (DWDS) were used to form single and multispecies biofilms in the presence and absence of crude cell-free supernatants produced by the partner bacteria. Biofilms were characterized in terms of mass and metabolic activity. Additionally, several physiological aspects regulating interspecies interactions (sessile growth rates, antimicrobial activity of cell-free supernatants, and production of iron chelators) were studied to identify bacterial species with biocontrol potential in DWDS. Biofilms of Methylobacterium sp. had the highest growth rate and M. mucogenicum biofilms the lowest. Only B. cepacia was able to produce extracellular iron-chelating molecules. A. calcoaceticus, B. cepacia, Methylobacterium sp. and M. mucogenicum biofilms were strongly inhibited by crude cell-free supernatants from the other bacteria. The crude cell-free supernatants of M. mucogenicum and S. capsulata demonstrated a high potential for inhibiting the growth of counterpart biofilms. Multispecies biofilm formation was strongly inhibited in the absence of A. calcoaceticus. Only crude cell-free supernatants produced by B. cepacia and A. calcoaceticus had no inhibitory effects on multispecies biofilm formation, while metabolite molecules of M. mucogenicum showed the most significant biocontrol potential.

Adhesion and biofilm formation on polystyrene by drinking water-isolated bacteria

This study was performed in order to characterize the relationship between adhesion and biofilm formation abilities of drinking water-isolated bacteria (Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, Burkholderia cepacia, Methylobacterium sp., Mycobacterium mucogenicum, Sphingomonas capsulata and Staphylococcus sp.). Adhesion was assessed by two distinct methods: thermodynamic prediction of adhesion potential by quantifying hydrophobicity and the free energy of adhesion; and by microtiter plate assays. Biofilms were developed in microtiter plates for 24, 48 and 72 h. Polystyrene (PS) was used as adhesion substratum. The tested bacteria had negative surface charge and were hydrophilic. PS had negative surface charge and was hydrophobic. The free energy of adhesion between the bacteria and PS was > 0 mJ/m(2) (thermodynamic unfavorable adhesion). The thermodynamic approach was inappropriate for modelling adhesion of the tested drinking water bacteria, underestimating adhesion to PS. Only three (B. cepacia, Sph. capsulata and Staphylococcus sp.) of the six bacteria were non-adherent to PS. A. calcoaceticus, Methylobacterium sp. and M. mucogenicum were weakly adherent. This adhesion ability was correlated with the biofilm formation ability when comparing with the results of 24 h aged biofilms. Methylobacterium sp. and M. mucogenicum formed large biofilm amounts, regardless the biofilm age. Given time, all the bacteria formed biofilms; even those non-adherents produced large amounts of matured (72 h aged) biofilms. The overall results indicate that initial adhesion did not predict the ability of the tested drinking water-isolated bacteria to form a mature biofilm, suggesting that other events such as phenotypic and genetic switching during biofilm development and the production of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), may play a significant role on biofilm formation and differentiation. This understanding of the relationship between adhesion and biofilm formation is important for the development of control strategies efficient in the early stages of biofilm development.

Identification of heterotrophic plate count bacteria isolated from drinking water in Japan by DNA sequencing analysis

Heterotrophic plate count (HPC) test has been employed to indicate the effectiveness of water treatment processes and the microbiological condition of the distribution system. In Japan, because the majority of HPC bacteria are supposed to be harmless and all tap water should maintain residual chlorine, there are few studies of the virulence of HPC bacteria. In this study, we examined HPC bacteria isolated from finished and tap water for hemolytic activity to determine their virulence potential. 34 of 39 colonies expressing hemolytic activity were identified by partial 16S rDNA sequencing, but some of their percent identity were relatively low. This may have been due to the mismatching of the primer pair with some strains, or these strains may be unidentified new species. A total of 30 of 34 isolates identified have been reported to be opportunistic pathogens or food poisoning bacteria. To control the growth of these opportunistic pathogens among HPC bacteria, appropriate water quality control must always be done and residual chlorine must be maintained in every tap for a safe water supply.

Biofilm interactions between distinct bacterial genera isolated from drinking water

In the environment, multiple microorganisms coexist as communities, competing for resources and often associated as biofilms. In this study, single- and dual-species biofilm formation by, and specific activities of, six heterotrophic intergeneric bacteria were determined using 96-well polystyrene plates over a 72-h period. These bacteria were isolated from drinking water and identified by partial 16S rRNA gene sequencing. A series of planktonic studies was also performed, assessing the bacterial growth rate, motility, and production of quorum-sensing inhibitors (QSI). This constituted an attempt to identify key attributes allowing bacteria to effectively interact and coexist in a drinking-water environment. We observed that in both pure and dual cultures, all of the isolates formed stable biofilms within 72 h, with specific metabolic activity decreasing, in most cases, with an increase in biofilm mass. The largest single- and dual-biofilm amounts were found for Methylobacterium sp. and the combination of Methylobacterium sp. and Mycobacterium mucogenicum, respectively. Evidences of microbial interactions in dual-biofilm formation, associated with appreciable biomass variation in comparison with single biofilms, were found for the following cases: synergy/cooperation between Sphingomonas capsulata and Burkholderia cepacia, S. capsulata and Staphylococcus sp., and B. cepacia and Acinetobacter calcoaceticus and antagonism between S. capsulata and M. mucogenicum, S. capsulata and A. calcoaceticus, and M. mucogenicum and Staphylococcus sp. A neutral interaction was found for Methylobacterium sp.-M. mucogenicum, S. capsulata-Staphylococcus sp., M. mucogenicum-A. calcoaceticus, and Methylobacterium sp.-A. calcoaceticus biofilms, since the resultant dual biofilms had a mass and specific metabolic activity similar to the average for each single biofilm. B. cepacia had the highest growth rate and motility and produced QSI. Other bacteria producing QSI were Methylobacterium sp., S. capsulata, and Staphylococcus sp. However, only for S. capsulata-M. mucogenicum, S. capsulata-A. calcoaceticus, and M. mucogenicum-Staphylococcus sp., dual-biofilm formation seems to be regulated by the QSI produced by S. capsulata and Staphylococcus sp. and by the increased growth rate of S. capsulata. The parameters assessed by planktonic studies did not allow prediction and generalization of the exact mechanism regulating dual-species biofilm formation between the drinking-water bacteria.

Potential of the adhesion of bacteria isolated from drinking water to materials

Heterotrophic bacteria (11 genera, 14 species, 25 putative strains) were isolated from drinking water, identified either biochemically or by partial 16s rDNA gene sequencing and their adherence characteristics were determined by two methods: i. thermodynamic prediction of adhesion potential by measuring hydrophobicity (contact angle measurements) and ii. by measuring adherence to eight different substrata (ASI 304 and 316 stainless steel, copper, polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene, polyethylene, silicone and glass). All the test organisms were hydrophilic and inter-species variation in hydrophobicity occurred only for Comamonas acidovorans. Stainless steel 304 (SS 304), copper, polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE) and silicone thermodynamically favoured adhesion for the majority of test strains (>18/25), whilst adhesion was generally less thermodynamically favorable for stainless steel 316 (SS 316), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and glass. The predictability of thermodynamic adhesion test methods was validated by comparison with 24-well microtiter plate assays using nine reference strains and three adhesion surfaces (SS 316, PVC and PE). Results for Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, Burkolderia cepacia and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia sp. 2 were congruent between both methods whilst they differed for the other bacteria to at least one material. Only A. calcoaceticus had strongly adherent properties to the three tested surfaces. Strain variation in adhesion ability was detected only for Sphingomonas capsulata. Analysis of adhesion demonstrated that in addition to physicochemical surface properties of bacterium and substratum, biological factors are involved in early adhesion processes, suggesting that reliance on thermodynamic approaches alone may not accurately predict adhesion capacity.

Profiling bacterial survival through a water treatment process and subsequent distribution system

AIMS

To profile fractions of active bacteria and of bacteria culturable with routine heterotrophic plate count (HPC) methods through a typical water treatment process and subsequent distribution system. In doing so, investigate how water treatment affects both bacterial abundance and diversity, and reveal the identities of active bacteria not detected by traditional HPC culture.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Profiling active fractions was performed by flow cytometric cell sorting of either membrane-intact (BacLight kit) or enzymatically active (carboxyfluorescein diacetate, CFDA) bacteria, followed by eubacterial 16S rDNA-directed PCR and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). Water treatment significantly reduced active bacterial numbers detected by the BacLight kit and CFDA assay by 2.89 and 2.81 log respectively. Bacterial diversity was also reduced from > 20 DGGE bands in the active fractions of reservoir water to only two bands in the active fractions of finished water. These two bands represented Stenotrophomonas maltophila, initially culturable by HPC, and a Burkholderia-related species. Both species maintained measurable traits of physiological activity in distribution system bulk water but were undetected by HPC.

CONCLUSIONS

Flow cytometric cell sorting with PCR-DGGE, to assess water treatment efficacy, identified active bacteria from a variety of major phylogenetic groups undetected by routine HPC. Following treatment S. maltophila and a Burkholderia-related species retained activity and entered distribution undetected by HPC.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Methods used here demonstrate how water treatment operators can better monitor water treatment plant efficacy and assess distribution system instability by the detection and identification of active bacteria recalcitrant to routine HPC culture.

Assessment of the microbial integrity, sensu G.S. Wilson, of piped and bottled drinking water in the condition as ingested

The second half of the 20th century witnessed substantial progress in the assurance and verification of microbiological integrity, i.e., safety and sensory quality, of drinking water. Enteropathogenic agents, such as particular viruses and protozoa, not previously identified as transmitted by industrially provided water supplies, were demonstrated to cause disease outbreaks, when ingested with piped water. The potential harm posed by carry-over of orally toxic metabolites of organisms, producing 'algal' (cyanophytic) blooms, was considered. In addition, earlier observations on the colonization of attenuated drinking water bodies by a variety of oligotrophic Gram-negative bacteria were confirmed and extended. This new evidence called for updating both water purification technologies and analytical methodology, serving to verify that goals had been attained. For the former purpose, the hazard analysis empowering control of critical practices (HACCP) strategy, introduced about 1960 in industrial food processing, was successfully adopted. Elimination, devitalization or barrier technologies for the more recently identified water-borne pathogens were elaborated, taking account of the hazard of production of chlorinated compounds with alleged adverse health effects. Biofilm formation throughout water distribution networks was brought under control by strict limitation of concentrations of compounds, assimilable by oligotrophic bacteria. Upon acknowledging that direct detection tests for pathogens were futile, because of their most sporadic and erratic distribution, Schardinger's marker organism concept was anew embraced, rigorously revised and substantially enlarged. Misleading designations, like searches for 'faecal coliforms' were replaced by boundary testing for Escherichia coli and appropriate Enterococcus spp. In addition, though still to be perfected, detection protocols for relevant bacteriophages or index viruses and, to a certain extent, also for spores of aerobic and anaerobic sporing rods were also elaborated. In all monitoring account was taken of sublethally injured target organisms, surviving purification technologies, though not deprived of their ecological significance. A need remains for a rigorously standardized operating procedure (SOP) for colony counts of psychrotrophic, oligotrophic Gram-negative rod-shaped bacteria ('heterotrophic plate count'), which constitute a useful criterion of indicator value. As in the contemporary HACCP approach to food safety, guidelines for assessing success or failure in control of integrity (Water Safety Objectives) were empirically elaborated. These rely on surveys on water samples, originating from drinking water supplies, previously verified as complying with longitudinally integrated HACCP-based purification technologies. Structured Academic dissemination of these innovations, through professional microbiologists to operator and executive levels, is recommended. Web based Distance Learning MSc Programmes, like the one, since the academic year 2003-2004, offered by the University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK, may contribute to such endeavours. Though the complete Course is centered around Food Safety, the Modules in-Residence Practicals and Science and Technology of Drinking Water can be studied as an entity while being employed.