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Kaur A, Yemmireddy V. Effect of Different Pre-Growth Temperatures on the Survival Kinetics of Salmonella enterica and Listeria monocytogenes in Fresh-Cut Salad during Refrigerated Storage. Foods 2023; 12:4287. [PMID: 38231743 DOI: 10.3390/foods12234287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
The effect of the pre-growth temperature of bacterial cultures on their subsequent survival kinetics in fresh-cut produce during refrigerated storage was investigated in this study. Three-strain cocktails of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella enterica, cultured at different growth temperatures (4, 21, and 37 °C) were inoculated on fresh-cut mixed salad and on individual produce in the mixed salad. The inoculated samples were stored at 4 °C and 80 ± 2% relative humidity (RH) for up to 72 h and the growth, survival, or death kinetics were determined at regular intervals. The results indicate that depending upon the type of pathogen tested, the pre-growth temperature(s) and the type of produce showed a significant (p ≤ 0.05) effect on the survival kinetics. Among the tested produce, mixed salad showed the highest reduction in L. monocytogenes pre-grown at 37 °C (1.33 log CFU/g) followed by red cabbage (0.56 log CFU/g), iceberg lettuce (0.52 log CFU/g), and carrot (-0.62 log CFU/g), after 72 h, respectively. In the case of Salmonella, carrot showed the highest reduction (1.07 log CFU/g for 37 °C pre-grown culture) followed by mixed salad (0.78 log CFU/g for 37 °C pre-grown culture), cabbage (0.76 log CFU/g for 21 °C pre-grown culture), and lettuce (0.65 log CFU/g for 4 °C pre-grown culture), respectively. Among the tested ComBase predictive models, the Baranyi-Roberts model better fitted the experimental data. These findings indicate that the appropriate selection of pre-growth environmental conditions is critical to better understand the kinetics of foodborne pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avninder Kaur
- School of Integrative Biological and Chemical Sciences, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, 1201 W University Dr, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA
| | - Veerachandra Yemmireddy
- School of Integrative Biological and Chemical Sciences, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, 1201 W University Dr, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA
- School of Earth, Environmental and Marine Sciences, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, 1201 W University Dr, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA
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2
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Pang H, Pouillot R, Van Doren JM. Quantitative risk assessment-epidemic curve prediction model for leafy green outbreak investigation. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2023; 43:1713-1732. [PMID: 36513596 DOI: 10.1111/risa.14073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to leverage quantitative risk assessment to investigate possible root cause(s) of foodborne illness outbreaks related to Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157:H7 (STEC O157) infections in leafy greens in the United States. To this end, we developed the FDA leafy green quantitative risk assessment epidemic curve prediction model (FDA-LG QRA-EC) that simulated the lettuce supply chain. The model was used to predict the number of reported illnesses and the epidemic curve associated with lettuce contaminated with STEC O157 for a wide range of scenarios representing various contamination conditions and facility processing/sanitation practices. Model predictions were generated for fresh-cut and whole lettuce, quantifying the differing impacts of facility processing and home preparation on predicted illnesses. Our model revealed that the timespan (i.e., number of days with at least one reported illness) and the peak (i.e., day with the most predicted number of reported illnesses) of the epidemic curve of a STEC O157-lettuce outbreak were not strongly influenced by facility processing/sanitation practices and were indications of contamination pattern among incoming lettuce batches received by the facility or distribution center. Through comparisons with observed number of illnesses from recent STEC O157-lettuce outbreaks, the model identified contamination conditions on incoming lettuce heads that could result in an outbreak of similar size, which can be used to narrow down potential root cause hypotheses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Pang
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland, USA
| | - Régis Pouillot
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland, USA
| | - Jane M Van Doren
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland, USA
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3
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Dogan OB, Flach MG, Miller MF, Brashears MM. Understanding potential cattle contribution to leafy green outbreaks: A scoping review of the literature and public health reports. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2023; 22:3506-3530. [PMID: 37421315 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.13200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2022] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/10/2023]
Abstract
Recently, multiple reports from regulatory agencies have linked leafy green outbreaks to nearby or adjacent cattle operations. While they have made logical explanations for this phenomenon, the reports and data should be summarized to determine if the association was based on empirical data, epidemiological association, or speculation. Therefore, this scoping review aims to gather data on the mechanisms of transmission for pathogens from livestock to produce, identify if direct evidence linking the two entities exists, and identify any knowledge gaps in the scientific literature and public health reports. Eight databases were searched systematically and 27 eligible primary research products, which focus on produce safety concerning proximity to livestock, provided empirical or epidemiological association and described mechanisms of transmission, qualitatively or quantitatively were retained. Fifteen public health reports were also covered. Results from the scientific articles provided evidence that proximity to livestock might be a risk factor; however, most lack quantitative data on the relative contribution of different pathways for contamination. Public health reports mainly indicate livestock presence as a possible source and encourage further research. Although the collected information regarding the proximity of cattle is a concern, data gaps indicate that more studies should be conducted to determine the relative contribution of different mechanisms of contamination and generate quantitative data to inform food safety risk analyses, regarding leafy greens produced nearby livestock areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Onay B Dogan
- International Center for Food Industry Excellence, Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, USA
| | - Makenzie G Flach
- International Center for Food Industry Excellence, Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, USA
| | - Markus F Miller
- International Center for Food Industry Excellence, Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, USA
| | - Mindy M Brashears
- International Center for Food Industry Excellence, Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, USA
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4
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Wei X, Aggrawal A, Bond RF, Latack BC, Atwill ER. Dispersal and risk factors for airborne E. coli in the proximity to beef cattle feedlots. J Food Prot 2023; 86:100099. [PMID: 37149091 DOI: 10.1016/j.jfp.2023.100099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/01/2023] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
California Leafy Green Products Handler Marketing Agreement (LGMA) established food safety metrics with guidance recommendations of 366 m (1200 feet) and 1609 m (1-mile) distances between production fields of leafy greens and a concentrated animal feeding operation (CAFO) containing >1000 and >80,000 head of cattle, respectively. This study evaluated the effect of these distance metrics and environmental factors on the occurrence of airborneE. coliin proximity to seven commercial beef cattle feedlots located in Imperial Valley, California. A total of 168 air samples were collected from seven beef cattle feedlots during March and April, 2020, which were the month's implicated in the 2018 Yuma Arizona lettuce outbreak of E. coli O157:H7. The distance between air sampling sites and the edge of the feedlot ranged from ∼0 to ∼ 2200 m (∼1.3 mile), with each sample comprised of 1000 liters of processed air taken at a 1.2 m elevation over a 10-minute duration. E. colicolonies were enumerated on CHROMagar ECC selective agar and confirmed with conventional PCR. Meteorological data (air temperature, wind speed, wind direction, relative humidity) was collectedin situ. The prevalence and mean concentration ofE. coliwas 6.55% (11/168) and 0.09 CFU per 1000 L of air, with positive samples limited to within 37 m (120 ft) of the feedlot.Based on logistic regression, the odds of airborne E. coli detection were associated with little to no wind and close proximity to a feedlot. This pilot study found limited dispersal of airborne E. coli in proximity to commercial feedlots in Imperial Valley, with light to no wind and proximity within 37 m of a feedlot significant factors associated airborne E. coli in this produce growing region of California.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohong Wei
- University of California Davis, Department of Population Health and Reproduction, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Amlan Aggrawal
- University of California Davis, Department of Population Health and Reproduction, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Ronald F Bond
- University of California Davis, Department of Population Health and Reproduction, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Brooke C Latack
- University of California Cooperative Extension, 1050 E Holton Road, Holtville, CA 92250, USA
| | - Edward R Atwill
- University of California Davis, Department of Population Health and Reproduction, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Wei X, Aggrawal A, Bond RF, Atwill ER. Low to Zero Concentrations of Airborne Bacterial Pathogens and Indicator E. coli in Proximity to Beef Cattle Feedlots in Imperial Valley, California. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11020411. [PMID: 36838376 PMCID: PMC9961607 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11020411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
This study characterized the effect of distance from beef cattle feedlots, environmental factors, and climate on the occurrence of airborne bacterial indicators and pathogens. Three hundred air samples were collected over 6 months from five feedlots, with each air sample comprising 6000 L of air. Air samples were processed onto TSB-enriched air filters, qPCR-screened, and then qPCR-confirmed for suspect positive colonies of E. coli O157, non-O157-Shiga-toxin-producing E. coli (STEC), Salmonella, and E. coli. Direct enumeration of E. coli was also collected. Although no bacterial pathogens were qPCR-confirmed for the 300 samples, E. coli was detected in 16.7% (50/300) of samples, with an overall mean concentration of 0.17 CFU/6000 L air. Logistic regression analyses revealed a higher odds of E. coli for samples in close proximity compared to >610 m (2000 ft) distance from feedlots, along with significant associations with meteorological factors, sampling hour of day, and the presence of a dust-generating activity such as plowing a field or nearby vehicular traffic. The lack of bacterial pathogen detection suggests airborne deposition from nearby feedlots may not be a significant mechanism of leafy green bacterial pathogen contamination; the result of our study provides data to inform future revisions of produce-safety guidance.
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Thompson JB, Symonds J, Carlisle L, Iles A, Karp DS, Ory J, Bowles TM. Remote sensing of hedgerows, windbreaks, and winter cover crops in California's Central Coast reveals low adoption but hotspots of use. FRONTIERS IN SUSTAINABLE FOOD SYSTEMS 2023. [DOI: 10.3389/fsufs.2023.1052029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-crop vegetation, such as hedgerows and cover crops, are important on-farm diversification practices that support biodiversity and ecosystem services; however, information about their rates and patterns of adoption are scarce. We used satellite and aerial imagery coupled with machine learning classification to map the use of hedgerows/windbreaks and winter cover crops in California's Central Coast, a globally important agricultural area of intensive fresh produce production. We expected that adoption of both practices would be relatively low and unevenly distributed across the landscape, with higher levels of adoption found in marginal farmland and in less intensively cultivated areas where the pressure to remove non-crop vegetation may be lower. Our remote sensing classification revealed that only ~6% of farmland had winter cover crops in 2021 and 0.26% of farmland had hedgerows or windbreaks in 2018. Thirty-seven percent of ranch parcels had cover crops on at least 5% of the ranch while 22% of ranches had at least one hedgerow/windbreak. Nearly 16% of farmland had other annual winter crops, some of which could provide services similar to cover crops; however, 60% of farmland had bare soil over the winter study period, with the remainder of farmland classified as perennial crops or strawberries. Hotspot analysis showed significant areas of adoption of both practices in the hillier regions of all counties. Finally, qualitative interviews revealed that adoption patterns were likely driven by interrelated effects of topography, land values, and farming models, with organic, diversified farms implementing these practices in less ideal, lower-value farmland. This study demonstrates how remote sensing coupled with qualitative research can be used to map and interpret patterns of important diversification practices, with implications for tracking policy interventions and targeting resources to assist farmers motivated to expand adoption.
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Structural Equation Models Suggest That On-Farm Noncrop Vegetation Removal Is Not Associated with Improved Food Safety Outcomes but Is Linked to Impaired Water Quality. Appl Environ Microbiol 2022; 88:e0160022. [PMID: 36409131 PMCID: PMC9746293 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01600-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
While growers have reported pressures to minimize wildlife intrusion into produce fields through noncrop vegetation (NCV) removal, NCV provides key ecosystem services. To model food safety and environmental tradeoffs associated with NCV removal, published and publicly available food safety and water quality data from the Northeastern United States were obtained. Because data on NCV removal are not widely available, forest-wetland cover was used as a proxy, consistent with previous studies. Structural equation models (SEMs) were used to quantify the effect of forest-wetland cover on (i) food safety outcomes (e.g., detecting pathogens in soil) and (ii) water quality (e.g., nutrient levels). Based on the SEMs, NCV was not associated with or had a protective effect on food safety outcomes (more NCV was associated with a reduced likelihood of pathogen detection). The probabilities of detecting Listeria spp. in soil (effect estimate [EE] = -0.17; P = 0.005) and enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli in stream samples (EE = -0.27; P < 0.001) were negatively associated with the amount of NCV surrounding the sampling site. Larger amounts of NCV were also associated with lower nutrient, salinity, and sediment levels, and higher dissolved oxygen levels. Total phosphorous levels were negatively associated with the amount of NCV in the upstream watershed (EE = -0.27; P < 0.001). Similar negative associations (P < 0.05) were observed for other physicochemical parameters, such as nitrate (EE = -0.38). Our findings suggest that NCV should not be considered an inherent produce safety risk or result in farm audit demerits. This study also provides a framework for evaluating environmental tradeoffs associated with using specific preharvest food safety strategies. IMPORTANCE Currently, on-farm food safety decisions are typically made independently of conservation considerations, often with detrimental impacts on agroecosystems. Comanaging agricultural environments to simultaneously meet conservation and food safety aims is complicated because farms are closely linked to surrounding environments, and management decisions can have unexpected environmental, economic, and food safety consequences. Thus, there is a need for research on the conservation and food safety tradeoffs associated with implementing specific preharvest food safety practices. Understanding these tradeoffs is critical for developing adaptive comanagement strategies and ensuring the short- and long-term safety, sustainability, and profitability of agricultural systems. This study quantifies tradeoffs and synergies between food safety and environmental aims, and outlines a framework for modeling tradeoffs and synergies between management aims that can be used to support future comanagement research.
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Liao YT, Zhang Y, Salvador A, Ho KJ, Cooley MB, Wu VCH. Characterization of polyvalent Escherichia phage Sa157lw for the biocontrol potential of Salmonella Typhimurium and Escherichia coli O157:H7 on contaminated mung bean seeds. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1053583. [PMID: 36439834 PMCID: PMC9686305 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1053583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Seeds are one of the primary sources of contamination with foodborne pathogens, such as pathogenic Escherichia coli, and various Salmonella serovars, for produce, particularly sprouts. Due to the susceptibility of sprout growth to chemical-based antimicrobials and the rising issue of antimicrobial resistance, developing innovative antimicrobial interventions is an urgent need. Therefore, the objective of this study was to characterize Escherichia phage Sa157lw (or Sa157lw) for the biocontrol potential of Salmonella Typhimurium and E. coli O157:H7 on contaminated mung bean seeds. Phage Sa157lw was subjected to whole-genome sequencing and biological characterization, including morphology, one-step growth curve, and stress stability tests. Later, antimicrobial activity was determined in vitro and upon application on the mung bean seeds artificially contaminated with E. coli O157:H7 or Salmonella Typhimurium. Sa157lw possessed a contractile tail and belonged to the Kuttervirus genus under the Ackermannviridae family, sharing a close evolutionary relationship with E. coli phage ECML-4 and Kuttervirus ViI; however, tail spike genes (ORF_102 and ORF_104) were the primary region of difference. Comparative genomics showed that Sa157lw encoded a cluster of tail spike genes—including ORF_101, ORF_102, and ORF_104—sharing high amino acid similarity with the counterfeits of various Salmonella phages. Additionally, Sa157lw harbored a unique tail fiber (ORF_103), possibly related to the receptors binding of O157 strains. The genomic evidence accounted for the polyvalent effects of Sa157lw against E. coli O157:H7 and various Salmonella serovars (Typhimurium, Enteritidis, Agona, Saintpaul, and Heidelberg). Furthermore, the phage did not contain any virulence, antibiotic-resistant, or lysogenic genes. Sa157lw had a 30-min latent period on both E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Typhimurium, with an estimated burst size of 130 and 220 PFU/CFU, respectively, and was stable at a wide range of temperatures (4–60°C) and pH (pH4 to pH10). The phage application demonstrated a strong anti-E. coli O157:H7 and anti-Salmonella Typhimurium effects in 1.1 and 1.8 log reduction on the contaminated mung bean seeds after overnight storage at 22°C. These findings provide valuable insights into the polyvalent Sa157lw as a potential biocontrol agent of Salmonella Typhimurium and E. coli O157:H7 on sprout seeds.
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Glaize A, Hull D, Raymond L, van Vliet AHM, Gutierrez-Rodriguez E, Thakur S. Tracking the Transmission of Antimicrobial-Resistant Non-O157 Escherichia coli and Salmonella Isolates at the Interface of Food Animals and Fresh Produce from Agriculture Operations Using Whole-Genome Sequencing. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2022; 19:637-647. [PMID: 35925756 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2022.0016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
An increasing number of outbreaks are caused by foodborne pathogens such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella, which often harbor antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes. We previously demonstrated the transmission of pathogens from animal operations to produce fields on sustainable farms, which illustrated an urgent need to develop and implement novel prevention methods and remediation practices such as the vegetative buffer zone (VBZ) to prevent this movement. The focus of this study was to use whole-genome sequencing (WGS) to characterize the AMR, virulence, and single-nucleotide polymorphism profile of 15 Salmonella and 128 E. coli isolates collected from small-scale dairy and poultry farms on a research station in North Carolina. Phenotypically, seven E. coli and three Salmonella isolates displayed resistance to antibiotics such as tetracycline (n = 4), ampicillin (n = 4), nalidixic acid (n = 3), chloramphenicol (n = 2), sulfisoxazole (n = 1), and streptomycin (n = 1). A single E. coli isolate was found to be resistant to five different antibiotic class types and possessed the blaTEM-150 resistance gene. Virulence genes that facilitate toxin production and cell invasion were identified. Mauve analysis of the E. coli isolates identified seven clusters (dairy-six and poultry-one) indicating that transmission is occurring from animal operations to fresh produce fields and the surrounding environment when the VBZ is denudated. This suggests that the VBZ is a useful barrier to reducing the transmission of enteric pathogens in agricultural systems. Our study demonstrates the prevalence of AMR and virulence genes on small-scale sustainable farms and highlights the advantage of using WGS to assess the impact of the VBZ to reduce the transmission of E. coli and Salmonella.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayanna Glaize
- Department of Population Health & Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Dawn Hull
- Department of Population Health & Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Luke Raymond
- Department of Population Health & Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Arnoud H M van Vliet
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Eduardo Gutierrez-Rodriguez
- Department of Horticulture & Landscape Architecture, College of Agricultural Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Siddhartha Thakur
- Department of Population Health & Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
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López-Gálvez F, Gómez PA, Artés F, Artés-Hernández F, Aguayo E. Interactions between Microbial Food Safety and Environmental Sustainability in the Fresh Produce Supply Chain. Foods 2021; 10:foods10071655. [PMID: 34359525 PMCID: PMC8307063 DOI: 10.3390/foods10071655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Improving the environmental sustainability of the food supply chain will help to achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This environmental sustainability is related to different SDGs, but mainly to SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 12 (Responsible Production and Consumption), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 15 (Life on Land). The strategies and measures used to improve this aspect of the food supply chain must remain in balance with other sustainability aspects (economic and social). In this framework, the interactions and possible conflicts between food supply chain safety and sustainability need to be assessed. Although priority must be given to safety aspects, food safety policies should be calibrated in order to avoid unnecessary deleterious effects on the environment. In the present review, a number of potential tensions and/or disagreements between the microbial safety and environmental sustainability of the fresh produce supply chain are identified and discussed. The addressed issues are spread throughout the food supply chain, from primary production to the end-of-life of the products, and also include the handling and processing industry, retailers, and consumers. Interactions of fresh produce microbial safety with topics such as food waste, supply chain structure, climate change, and use of resources have been covered. Finally, approaches and strategies that will prove useful to solve or mitigate the potential contradictions between fresh produce safety and sustainability are described and discussed. Upon analyzing the interplay between microbial safety and the environmental sustainability of the fresh produce supply chain, it becomes clear that decisions that are taken to ensure fresh produce safety must consider the possible effects on environmental, economic, and social sustainability aspects. To manage these interactions, a global approach considering the interconnections between human activities, animals, and the environment will be required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco López-Gálvez
- Postharvest and Refrigeration Group, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica (ETSIA), Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena (UPCT), Paseo Alfonso XIII, 48, 30203 Cartagena, Spain; (F.L.-G.); (F.A.); (F.A.-H.)
- Food Quality and Health Group, Institute of Plant Biotechnology (UPCT), Campus Muralla del Mar, 30202 Cartagena, Spain;
| | - Perla A. Gómez
- Food Quality and Health Group, Institute of Plant Biotechnology (UPCT), Campus Muralla del Mar, 30202 Cartagena, Spain;
| | - Francisco Artés
- Postharvest and Refrigeration Group, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica (ETSIA), Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena (UPCT), Paseo Alfonso XIII, 48, 30203 Cartagena, Spain; (F.L.-G.); (F.A.); (F.A.-H.)
- Food Quality and Health Group, Institute of Plant Biotechnology (UPCT), Campus Muralla del Mar, 30202 Cartagena, Spain;
| | - Francisco Artés-Hernández
- Postharvest and Refrigeration Group, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica (ETSIA), Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena (UPCT), Paseo Alfonso XIII, 48, 30203 Cartagena, Spain; (F.L.-G.); (F.A.); (F.A.-H.)
- Food Quality and Health Group, Institute of Plant Biotechnology (UPCT), Campus Muralla del Mar, 30202 Cartagena, Spain;
| | - Encarna Aguayo
- Postharvest and Refrigeration Group, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica (ETSIA), Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena (UPCT), Paseo Alfonso XIII, 48, 30203 Cartagena, Spain; (F.L.-G.); (F.A.); (F.A.-H.)
- Food Quality and Health Group, Institute of Plant Biotechnology (UPCT), Campus Muralla del Mar, 30202 Cartagena, Spain;
- Correspondence:
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