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Greve NB, Slotved HC, Olsen JE, Thomsen LE. Identification of antibiotic induced persister cells in Streptococcus agalactiae. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0303271. [PMID: 38924011 PMCID: PMC11207178 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0303271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Antibiotic persistence is a phenomenon, where a small fraction of a bacterial population expresses a phenotypic variation that allows them to survive antibiotic treatment, which is lethal to the rest of the population. These cells are called persisters cells, and their occurrence has been associated with recurrent disease. Streptococcus agalactiae is a human pathobiont, able to cause invasive infections, and recurrent infections have been reported to occur in both newborns and adults. In this study, we demonstrated that S. agalactiae NEM316 can form persister cells when exposed to antibiotics from different classes. The frequency of persister cell formation was dependent on bacterial growth phase and the class of antibiotics. The ability to form persister cells in response to penicillin was shown to be a general trait among different clinical S. agalactiae isolates, independent of sero- and sequence-type. Taken together, this study shows the existence of antibiotic tolerant S. agalactiae persister cells, which may explain why this bacterial species frequently persists after treatment of invasive infection and can be associated with recurrent disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanna Boll Greve
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Hans-Christian Slotved
- Department of Bacteria, Division of Infectious Disease Preparedness, Parasites and Fungi, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen S, Denmark
| | - John Elmerdahl Olsen
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Line Elnif Thomsen
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
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2
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Founou LL, Khan UB, Medugu N, Pinto TCA, Darboe S, Chendi Z, Founou RC, To KN, Jamrozy D, Karampatsas K, Carr VR, Pepper K, Dangor Z, Ip M, Le Doare K, Bentley SD. Molecular epidemiology of Streptococcus agalactiae in non-pregnant populations: a systematic review. Microb Genom 2023; 9. [PMID: 38019122 DOI: 10.1099/mgen.0.001140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus agalactiae (group B Streptococcus, GBS) has recently emerged as an important pathogen among adults. However, it is overlooked in this population, with all global efforts being directed towards its containment among pregnant women and neonates. This systematic review assessed the molecular epidemiology and compared how the lineages circulating among non-pregnant populations relate to those of pregnant and neonatal populations worldwide. A systematic search was performed across nine databases from 1 January 2000 up to and including 20 September 2021, with no language restrictions. The Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Prevalence Critical Appraisal Tool (PCAT) was used to assess the quality of included studies. The global population structure of GBS from the non-pregnant population was analysed using in silico typing and phylogenetic reconstruction tools. Twenty-four articles out of 13 509 retrieved across 9 databases were eligible. Most studies were conducted in the World Health Organization European region (12/24, 50 %), followed by the Western Pacific region (6/24, 25 %) and the Americas region (6/24, 25 %). Serotype V (23%, 2310/10240) and clonal complex (CC) 1 (29 %, 2157/7470) were the most frequent serotype and CC, respectively. The pilus island PI1 : PI2A combination (29 %, 3931/13751) was the most prevalent surface protein gene, while the tetracycline resistance tetM (55 %, 5892/10624) was the leading antibiotic resistance gene. This study highlights that, given the common serotype distribution identified among non-pregnant populations (V, III, Ia, Ib, II and IV), vaccines including these six serotypes will provide broad coverage. The study indicates advanced molecular epidemiology studies, especially in resource-constrained settings for evidence-based decisions. Finally, the study shows that considering all at-risk populations in an inclusive approach is essential to ensure the sustainable containment of GBS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luria Leslie Founou
- Reproductive, Maternal, Newborn and Child Health (ReMARCH) Research Unit, Centre of Expertise and Biological Diagnostic of Cameroon Research Institute (CEDBCAM-RI), Yaoundé, Cameroon
- Bioinformatics and Applied Machine Learning Research Unit, EDEN Biosciences Research Institute (EBRI), EDEN Foundation, Yaoundé, Cameroon
- Antimicrobial Research Unit, School of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban, 4041, South Africa
| | - Uzma Basit Khan
- Parasites and Microbes, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Nubwa Medugu
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, National Hospital Abuja, Abuja, Nigeria
| | - Tatiana C A Pinto
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Goes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Saffiatou Darboe
- Medical Research Council Unit at London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Banjul, Gambia
| | - Zhu Chendi
- Department of Microbiology, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China
| | - Raspail Carrel Founou
- Antibiotic Resistance Infectious Diseases (ARID) Research Unit, Centre of Expertise and Biological Diagnostic of Cameroon Research Institute (CEDBCAM-RI), Yaoundé, Cameroon
- Antimicrobial Research Unit, School of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban, 4041, South Africa
- Department of Microbiology, Hematology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon
| | - Ka-Ning To
- Institute of Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London, UK
| | - Dorota Jamrozy
- Parasites and Microbes, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK
| | | | - Victoria R Carr
- Centre for Host-Microbiome Interactions, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, King's College London, London, SE1 9RT, UK
- Parasites and Microbes, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Kevin Pepper
- Parasites and Microbes, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Ziyaad Dangor
- Vaccines and Infectious Diseases Analytics (VIDA) Research Unit, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Margaret Ip
- Department of Microbiology, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China
| | - Kirsty Le Doare
- Medical Research Council Uganda Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Stephen D Bentley
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Parasites and Microbes, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK
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3
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Zhou Y, Zhao XC, Wang LQ, Chen CW, Hsu MH, Liao WT, Deng X, Yan Q, Zhao GP, Chen CL, Zhang L, Chiu CH. Detecting Genetic Variation of Colonizing Streptococcus agalactiae Genomes in Humans: A Precision Protocol. FRONTIERS IN BIOINFORMATICS 2022; 2:813599. [PMID: 36304301 PMCID: PMC9580942 DOI: 10.3389/fbinf.2022.813599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Deciphering the genotypic diversity of within-individual pathogens and verifying the evolutionary model can help elucidate resistant genotypes, virulent subpopulations, and the mechanism of opportunistic pathogenicity. However, observed polymorphic mutations (PMs) are rare and difficult to be detected in the “dominant-lineage” model of bacterial infection due to the low frequency. The four pooled group B Streptococcus (GBS) samples were collected from the genital tracts of healthy pregnant women, and the pooled samples and the isogenic controls were genomically sequenced. Using the PMcalling program, we detected the PMs in samples and compared the results between two technical duplicates, GBS-M001T and GBS-M001C. Tested with simulated datasets, the PMcalling program showed high sensitivity especially in low-frequency PMs and reasonable specificity. The genomic sequence data from pooled samples of GBS colonizing carrier pregnant women were analyzed, and few high-frequency PMs and some low-frequency PMs were discovered, indicating a dominant-lineage evolution model. The PMs mainly were nonsynonymous and enriched in quorum sensing, glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, etc., suggesting antimicrobial or environmental selective pressure. The re-analysis of the published Burkholderia dolosa data showed a diverse-community model, and only a few low-frequency PMs were shared between different individuals. Genes of general control non-repressible 5-related N-acetyltransferases family, major facilitator superfamily (MFS) transporter, and ABC transporter were positive selection candidates. Our findings indicate an unreported nature of the dominant-lineage model of GBS colonization in healthy women, and a formerly not observed mutation pool in a colonized microbial community, possibly maintained by selection pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai-MOST Key Laboratory of Health and Disease Genomics, Chinese National Human Genome Center at Shanghai, Shanghai Institute for Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Technologies, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Yan Zhou, ; Liang Zhang, ; Cheng-Hsun Chiu,
| | - Xue-Chao Zhao
- The Institutes of Biology and Medical Sciences, School of Biology and Basic Medical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Lin-Qi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Cheng-Wen Chen
- Shanghai-MOST Key Laboratory of Health and Disease Genomics, Chinese National Human Genome Center at Shanghai, Shanghai Institute for Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Technologies, Shanghai, China
| | - Mei-Hua Hsu
- Molecular Infectious Disease Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Department of Pediatrics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Wan-Ting Liao
- Molecular Infectious Disease Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Department of Pediatrics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Xiao Deng
- The Institutes of Biology and Medical Sciences, School of Biology and Basic Medical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Qing Yan
- Shanghai-MOST Key Laboratory of Health and Disease Genomics, Chinese National Human Genome Center at Shanghai, Shanghai Institute for Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Technologies, Shanghai, China
| | - Guo-Ping Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai-MOST Key Laboratory of Health and Disease Genomics, Chinese National Human Genome Center at Shanghai, Shanghai Institute for Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Technologies, Shanghai, China
| | - Chyi-Liang Chen
- Molecular Infectious Disease Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Department of Pediatrics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Liang Zhang
- Shanghai-MOST Key Laboratory of Health and Disease Genomics, Chinese National Human Genome Center at Shanghai, Shanghai Institute for Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Technologies, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Yan Zhou, ; Liang Zhang, ; Cheng-Hsun Chiu,
| | - Cheng-Hsun Chiu
- Molecular Infectious Disease Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Department of Pediatrics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- *Correspondence: Yan Zhou, ; Liang Zhang, ; Cheng-Hsun Chiu,
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Recurrent Group B Streptococcus Septicemia Secondary to Portal Hypertensive Colopathy. INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN CLINICAL PRACTICE 2022. [DOI: 10.1097/ipc.0000000000001123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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5
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Jalalifar S, Havaei SA, Motallebirad T, Moghim S, Fazeli H, Esfahani BN. Determination of surface proteins profile, capsular genotyping, and antibiotic susceptibility patterns of Group B Streptococcus isolated from urinary tract infection of Iranian patients. BMC Res Notes 2019; 12:437. [PMID: 31324269 PMCID: PMC6642507 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-019-4428-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 07/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives Group B Streptococcus (GBS) is an important opportunistic bacteria that causes a wide range of infections including neonatal sepsis, meningitis, pneumonia, soft tissue and urinary tract infections (UTI). The aim of this study was to evaluate the antimicrobial susceptibility patterns, surface proteins and capsular types of GBS isolates. Results 100 of UTI isolates were confirmed as GBS. Antimicrobial susceptibility pattern showed that 95% of GBS isolates were resistant to tetracycline, followed by erythromycin (52%), clindamycin (47%), levofloxacin (9%) and penicillin, cefepime, cefotaxime, and ceftriaxone each with (8%), and vancomycin 1%. Common capsular types were III, Ib, V, II, Ia and IV respectively and the distribution of surface protein genes was as follows: rib (40%), alpha-c (22%), alp2/3 (18%) and epsilon (15%), and alp4 gene was not detected in the isolates. Our findings showed the relationship between capsular types with Alpha-like proteins, as well as reduced sensitivity to antibiotics, so the performance of antibiotic surveillance programs is recommended. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13104-019-4428-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saba Jalalifar
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Seyed Asghar Havaei
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Tahereh Motallebirad
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Sharareh Moghim
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Hossein Fazeli
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Bahram Nasr Esfahani
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.
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6
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Tsai MH, Hsu JF, Lai MY, Lin LC, Chu SM, Huang HR, Chiang MC, Fu RH, Lu JJ. Molecular Characteristics and Antimicrobial Resistance of Group B Streptococcus Strains Causing Invasive Disease in Neonates and Adults. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:264. [PMID: 30833941 PMCID: PMC6387999 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2018] [Accepted: 02/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
We aimed to analyze the molecular characteristics, clonality and antimicrobial resistance profiles of group B streptococcus (GBS) isolates collected in Taiwan from invasive diseases and carriage. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) was used to assess the genetic diversity of 225 GBS strains from neonates and adults with invasive GBS diseases. 100 GBS strains collected from colonized pregnant women during the same period were compared, and all strains were characterized for one of nine capsule genotypes. We also determined the susceptibilities of all GBS isolates to various antimicrobial agents. The most frequently identified serotypes that caused invasive disease in neonates were III (60.6%) and Ia (17.3%), whereas type VI (32.7%), Ib (19.4%), and V (19.4%) were the most common to cause invasive disease in adults. Serotype VI was the leading type that colonized pregnant women (35.0%). Twenty-six sequence types (STs) were identified, and 90.5% of GBS strains were represented by 6 STs. ST-17 and ST-1 were more prevalent in invasive diseases in neonates and adults, respectively. The majority of serotype III and VI isolates belonged to clonal complex (CC)-17 and CC-1, respectively. ST-17 strains were more likely to cause meningitis and late-onset disease than other strains. In addition, ST-12 and ST-17 GBS strains showed the highest rate of resistance to erythromycin and clindamycin (range: 75.8–100%). In conclusion, CC-17/type III and CC-1/type VI are the most important invasive pathogens in infants and non-pregnant adults in Taiwan, respectively. GBS genotypes vary between different age groups and geographical areas and should be considered during GBS vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Horng Tsai
- Division of Neonatology and Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Yunlin, Taiwan.,College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Jen-Fu Hsu
- College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Division of Pediatric Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Mei-Yin Lai
- College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Division of Pediatric Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Lee-Chung Lin
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Ming Chu
- College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Division of Pediatric Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Hsuan-Rong Huang
- College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Division of Pediatric Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Chou Chiang
- College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Division of Pediatric Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Ren-Huei Fu
- College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Division of Pediatric Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Jang-Jih Lu
- College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Department of Laboratory Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Department of Medical Biotechnology and Laboratory Science, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
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7
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Cooper K, Abbott F, Gould IM. Reduced penicillin susceptibility of group B Streptococcus: an assessment of emergence in Grampian, Scotland. Br J Biomed Sci 2016; 73:25-7. [PMID: 27182673 DOI: 10.1080/09674845.2016.1144550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- K Cooper
- a NHS Grampian Department of Medical Microbiology , Aberdeen Royal Infirmary , Aberdeen , Scotland
| | - F Abbott
- a NHS Grampian Department of Medical Microbiology , Aberdeen Royal Infirmary , Aberdeen , Scotland
| | - I M Gould
- a NHS Grampian Department of Medical Microbiology , Aberdeen Royal Infirmary , Aberdeen , Scotland
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Lin HC, Chen CJ, Chiang KH, Yen TY, Ho CM, Hwang KP, Su BH, Lin HC, Li TC, Lu JJ. Clonal dissemination of invasive and colonizing clonal complex 1 of serotype VI group B Streptococcus in central Taiwan. JOURNAL OF MICROBIOLOGY, IMMUNOLOGY, AND INFECTION = WEI MIAN YU GAN RAN ZA ZHI 2014; 49:902-909. [PMID: 25560254 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmii.2014.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2014] [Revised: 10/14/2014] [Accepted: 11/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/PURPOSE The aim of this study was to investigate clinical presentation, serotype distribution and genetic correlation of group B streptococcus (GBS) diseases. Since serotype VI prevalence far exceeded that reported in prior studies, genetic relationship of isolates was further analyzed. METHODS GBS isolates obtaining from patients with invasive diseases and pregnant women with colonization between June 2007 and December 2010 were analyzed. All isolates were tested for serotypes by multiplex PCR assay and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Serotype VI isolates were further analyzed by multilocus sequence typing (MLST). RESULTS A total of 134 GBS isolates were recovered from blood of 126 patients with invasive disease (94.0%) and anogenital swabs of 8 pregnant women (6.0%). Most common serotype was Ib (21.6%), followed by V (20.1%), VI (18.7%), III (15.7%), II (11.9 %), Ia (11.2%), and IX (0.7%). Serotype VI was also the leading type in infants with early onset disease (EOD; 3/8, 37.5%) and colonizing pregnant women (3/8, 37.5%). PFGE distinguished 33 pulsotypes, reflecting genetic diversity among GBS isolates. Among 25 serotype VI isolates tested, 14 were ST-1, seven were ST-679, three were ST-678, one was ST-681, and distributed into four PFGE pulsotypes. ST-678, ST-679, and ST-681 were novel sequence types; ST-678 and ST-679 are single-locus variants of ST-1 that belongs to clonal complex (CC) 1. CONCLUSION CC1 dissemination of serotype VI GBS thus emerges as an important invasive pathogen in infants and nonpregnant adults in central Taiwan. Serotype prevalence of GBS must be continuously monitored geographically to guide prevention strategy of GBS vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsiao-Chuan Lin
- Department of Public Health, College of Public Health, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Infectious Diseases, Children's Hospital, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chao-Jung Chen
- Graduate Institute of Integrated Medicine, College of Chinese Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Proteomics Core Laboratory, Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Kai-Hung Chiang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Yu Yen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Children's Hospital, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Mao Ho
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Kao-Pin Hwang
- Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Infectious Diseases, Children's Hospital, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Bai-Horng Su
- Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Neonatology, Children's Hospital, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Hung-Chih Lin
- Department of Neonatology, Children's Hospital, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; School of Chinese Medicine and Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Tsai-Chung Li
- Graduate Institute of Biostatistics, College of Management, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Healthcare Administration, College of Health Science, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Jang-Jih Lu
- Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Laboratory Medicine, Linkou Chang-Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan; Department of Medical Biotechnology and Laboratory Science, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Taoyuan, Taiwan.
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