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Terauchi M, Uo M, Fukawa Y, Yoshitake H, Tajima R, Ikeda T, Yoda T. Chemical Diagnosis of Calcium Pyrophosphate Deposition Disease of the Temporomandibular Joint: A Case Report. Diagnostics (Basel) 2022; 12:diagnostics12030651. [PMID: 35328204 PMCID: PMC8947689 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics12030651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Revised: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD) deposition disease is a benign disorder characterized by acute gouty arthritis-like attacks and first reported by McCarty. CPPD deposition disease rarely occurs in the temporomandibular joint (TMJ), and although confirmation of positive birefringence by polarized light microscopy is important for diagnosis, it is not reliable because other crystals also show birefringence. We reported a case of CPPD deposition disease of the TMJ that was diagnosed by chemical analysis. A 47-year-old man with a chief complaint of persistent pain in the right TMJ and trismus was referred to our department in 2020. Radiographic examination revealed destruction of the head of the mandibular condyle and cranial base with a neoplastic lesion involving calcification tissue. We suspected CPPD deposition disease and performed enucleation of the white, chalky masses. Histopathologically, we confirmed crystal deposition with weak birefringence. SEM/EDS revealed that the light emitting parts of Ca and P corresponded with the bright part of the SEM image. Through X-ray diffraction, almost all peaks were confirmed to be CPPD-derived. Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy revealed a Ca/P ratio of nearly 1. These chemical analyses further support the histological diagnosis of CPPD deposition disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiko Terauchi
- Department of Maxillofacial Surgery, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8549, Japan; (H.Y.); (R.T.); (T.Y.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-3-5803-5500
| | - Motohiro Uo
- Department of Advanced Biomaterials, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8549, Japan;
| | - Yuki Fukawa
- Department of Oral Pathology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8549, Japan; (Y.F.); (T.I.)
| | - Hiroyuki Yoshitake
- Department of Maxillofacial Surgery, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8549, Japan; (H.Y.); (R.T.); (T.Y.)
| | - Rina Tajima
- Department of Maxillofacial Surgery, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8549, Japan; (H.Y.); (R.T.); (T.Y.)
| | - Tohru Ikeda
- Department of Oral Pathology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8549, Japan; (Y.F.); (T.I.)
| | - Tetsuya Yoda
- Department of Maxillofacial Surgery, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8549, Japan; (H.Y.); (R.T.); (T.Y.)
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Takeda K, Miyamoto I, Abe R, Kawai T, Ohashi Y, Yamada H. Tophaceous pseudogout of the temporomandibular joint extending into the cranium: a case report with literature review. J Surg Case Rep 2022; 2022:rjac055. [PMID: 35265318 PMCID: PMC8901271 DOI: 10.1093/jscr/rjac055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Pseudogout is a disease characterized by calcium pyrophosphate crystal deposition. Involvement of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) is rare. We herein report a case of tophaceous pseudogout of the TMJ with cranial extension. An 83-year-old woman was referred to our institution for treatment of right TMJ pain. The patient’s medical and family histories were unremarkable. Magnetic resonance imaging showed a mass of about 35 mm in diameter compressing the bottom of the right temporal lobe of the brain. Based on a clinical diagnosis of a right TMJ tumour, biopsy was performed under general anaesthesia. The histopathological diagnosis was pseudogout. Considering the risk of surgically induced brain damage, the patient’s advanced age and her relatively good quality of life, the treatment plan simply involved the observation of the lesion. Fourteen months after biopsy, the patient’s activities of daily living remained unchanged and she had no TMJ pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kei Takeda
- Division of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Department of Reconstructive Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School of Dentistry, Iwate Medical University
- Department of Dentistry and Oral Surgery, Aomori Prefectural Central Hospital
| | - Ikuya Miyamoto
- Division of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Department of Reconstructive Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School of Dentistry, Iwate Medical University
| | - Ryosuke Abe
- Division of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Department of Reconstructive Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School of Dentistry, Iwate Medical University
- Department of Dentistry and Oral Surgery, Iwate Prefectural Central Hospital
| | - Tadashi Kawai
- Division of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Department of Reconstructive Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School of Dentistry, Iwate Medical University
| | - Yu Ohashi
- Division of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Department of Reconstructive Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School of Dentistry, Iwate Medical University
| | - Hiroyuki Yamada
- Division of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Department of Reconstructive Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School of Dentistry, Iwate Medical University
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Dang RR, Noonan V, Chigurupati R, Henry A. Treatment of tophaceous pseudogout in the temporomandibular joint with resection and alloplastic reconstruction: a single-staged approach. Oral Maxillofac Surg 2021; 26:505-509. [PMID: 34596805 DOI: 10.1007/s10006-021-01013-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Tophaceous pseudogout is a rare variant of the calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD) disorder, with predilection for the TMJ. It is characterized by calcific deposits composed of rhomboid- or rectangular-shaped crystals that exhibit birefringence when examined under polarized light. We hereby present a case of a 65-year-old man with left pre-auricular tenderness and malocclusion. CT imaging was notable for a left TMJ mineralized mass with erosion of the condylar head. Treatment involved excision of the mass with eminectomy, condylectomy, and a stock total TMJ reconstruction. In this report, important considerations for diagnosis, biopsy, and surgical treatment with emphasis on reconstruction for tophaceous pseudogout of the TMJ have been highlighted by the authors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rushil R Dang
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA, 02118, USA.
| | - Vikki Noonan
- Division of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, Boston University Henry M. Goldman School of Dental Medicine, 635 Albany Street, Boston, MA, 02118, USA
| | - Radhika Chigurupati
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA, 02118, USA
| | - Andrew Henry
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA, 02118, USA
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Tang T, Han FG. Calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease of the temporomandibular joint invading the middle cranial fossa: Two case reports. World J Clin Cases 2021; 9:2662-2670. [PMID: 33889634 PMCID: PMC8040178 DOI: 10.12998/wjcc.v9.i11.2662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 01/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pseudogout is a benign joint lesion caused by the deposition of calcium pyro-phosphate dihydrate crystals, but it is invasive. Pseudogout of the temporo-mandibular joint (TMJ) is uncommon, and it rarely invades the skull base or penetrates into the middle cranial fossa. The disease has no characteristic clinical manifestations and is easily misdiagnosed.
CASE SUMMARY We present two cases of tophaceous pseudogout of the TMJ invading the middle cranial fossa. A 46-year-old woman with a history of diabetes for more than 10 years was admitted to the hospital due to swelling and pain in the right temporal region. Another patient, a 52-year-old man with a mass in the left TMJ for 6 years, was admitted to the hospital. Maxillofacial imaging showed a calcified mass and severe bone destruction of the skull base in the TMJ area. Both patients underwent excision of the lesion. The lesion was pathologically diagnosed as tophaceous pseudogout. The symptoms in these patients were relieved after surgery.
CONCLUSION Tophaceous pseudogout should be considered when there is a calcified mass in the TMJ with or without bone destruction. A pathological examination is the gold standard for diagnosing this disease. Surgical treatment is currently the recommended treatment, and the prognosis is good after surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Tang
- Department of Radiology, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Fu-Gang Han
- Department of Radiology, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, Sichuan Province, China
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A case report of chondrocalcinosis of the temporomandibular joint: Surgical management and literature review. ORAL AND MAXILLOFACIAL SURGERY CASES 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.omsc.2020.100180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Henschen BR, Lewin-Smith MR, Mouser PJ, Jenkins HM, Strausborger SL, Fetsch JF, LaDouceur EEB. Tophaceous pseudogout in a 12-year-old dog, with a review of applicable laboratory tests. J Vet Diagn Invest 2020; 32:727-732. [PMID: 32757850 DOI: 10.1177/1040638720945307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Pseudogout, also known as calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD) deposition disease or chondrocalcinosis, is caused by crystalline deposits of CPPD within the extracellular matrix of articular hyaline cartilage and fibrocartilage, and within articular and periarticular connective tissue. Using a variety of laboratory techniques, we diagnosed pseudogout in the right hindlimb digit V of a 12-y-old Standard Poodle. Histologically, the joint, bone, tendon, and dermis were expanded and effaced by masses of mineralized, rhomboid crystals surrounded by macrophages, multinucleate giant cells, fibrous connective tissue, and chondroid and osseous matrix. Rhomboid crystals exhibiting weak-positive birefringence were identified under polarized light using a first-order red compensator filter. Scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive x-ray analysis (SEM-EDXA) revealed that the rhomboid crystals were composed of calcium, phosphorus, and oxygen. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) microspectroscopy confirmed the presence of calcium pyrophosphate. In dogs, tophaceous pseudogout, which was the variant of pseudogout in our case, occurs as a single, tumor-like periarticular mass that can be invasive and mimic neoplasia. Having ancillary confirmatory testing (SEM-EDXA and FTIR), particularly in unusual histologic scenarios, such as tophaceous pseudogout in dogs, is desirable for confirming the correct diagnosis, even though it is available only at certain reference centers. The pathogenesis of pseudogout is unknown.
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Periarticular chondrocalcinosis of the left temporomandibular joint: A case report. ORAL AND MAXILLOFACIAL SURGERY CASES 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.omsc.2020.100145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Houghton D, Munir N, Triantafyllou A, Begley A. Tophaceous pseudogout of the temporomandibular joint with erosion into the middle cranial fossa. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2020; 49:1286-1289. [PMID: 32278623 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijom.2020.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Revised: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 03/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
This report presents a case of extensive tophaceous pseudogout involving the temporomandibular joint (TMJ), causing erosion into the middle cranial fossa. Pseudogout is a benign metabolic arthropathy caused by calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate crystal deposition within joints and peri-articular tissue. Pseudogout more frequently occurs in large joints such as the knee, wrist, symphysis pubis, and shoulder. Tophaceous pseudogout involving the TMJ is rare, with only seven cases involving erosion into the middle cranial fossa reported previously. Despite skull base erosion being a rare consequence of this erosive disease, this case highlights the importance of appropriate investigation and multidisciplinary team management.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Houghton
- Maxillofacial Unit, Liverpool Head and Neck Centre, Aintree University Hospital, Liverpool, UK.
| | - N Munir
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Liverpool Head and Neck Centre, Aintree University Hospital, Liverpool, UK
| | - A Triantafyllou
- Department of Oral Pathology, Aintree University Hospitals, Liverpool, UK
| | - A Begley
- Maxillofacial Unit, Liverpool Head and Neck Centre, Aintree University Hospital, Liverpool, UK
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Loro LL, Bjørnland T. Calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease: A case report with bilateral involvement of the temporomandibular joints and concurrence of psoriatic arthritis. Clin Case Rep 2020; 8:640-643. [PMID: 32274026 PMCID: PMC7141746 DOI: 10.1002/ccr3.2715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Revised: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 01/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Calcium pyrophosphate dehydrate deposition (CPDD) disease very rarely affects the temporomandibular joint (TMJ). It may resemble synovial chondromatosis, chondrosarcoma, chondroblastoma, or a parotid tumor. Clinical examination, CT, and MRI are important in making the correct diagnosis. Surgical removal of CPDD is necessary with or without excision of the TMJ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lado Lako Loro
- Section of Maxillofacial SurgeryDepartment of Ophthalmology, Otolaryngology and Maxillofacial SurgeryMøre and Romsdal Hospital TrustÅlesund HospitalÅlesundNorway
| | - Tore Bjørnland
- Department of Oral Surgery and Oral MedicineFaculty of DentistryUniversity of OsloOsloNorway
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Hotokezaka Y, Hotokezaka H, Katayama I, Fujita S, Sasaki M, Eida S, Uetani M. A case of tophaceous pseudogout of the temporomandibular joint extending into the cranium. Oral Radiol 2019; 36:203-208. [PMID: 31559516 DOI: 10.1007/s11282-019-00410-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
A case of tophaceous pseudogout (i.e., calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate crystal deposition disease) in the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) extending into the cranium is reported. A 59-year-old woman was referred to hospital with swelling and pain in the left cheek, and with trismus. Computed tomography imaging revealed a large, granular, calcified mass surrounding the left condylar head, partly destroying the cortex of the condylar head, and extending into the cranium by destroying the glenoid fossa. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed that the soft-tissue mass was of low-signal intensity on T1- and T2-weighted images, and was enhanced after intravenous injection of gadolinium. The mass was clinically and radiographically suspected to be a neoplastic lesion or a synovial osteochodromatosis. However, histological analysis demonstrated that the mass contained granulomatous lesion due to multiple nodular deposits of numerous rod-shaped and rhomboid crystals, which verified the diagnosis of tophaceous pseudogout. The lesion was excised surgically using a preauricular approach. Neither radiographic nor clinical examination demonstrated any signs of mass recurrence in the long-term 8- and 14-year postoperative recall examinations. Tophaceous pseudogout is a rare benign arthropathy that presents with clinical and radiographic features mimicking neoplastic conditions of the TMJ. Therefore, it is recommended that tophaceous pseudogout is considered in the differential diagnosis when a calcified mass lesion of the TMJ is encountered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuka Hotokezaka
- Department of Radiology and Cancer Biology, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, 1-7-1 Sakamoto, Nagasaki, 852-8588, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Hotokezaka
- Department of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, 1-7-1 Sakamoto, Nagasaki, 852-8588, Japan
| | - Ikuo Katayama
- Department of Radiology and Cancer Biology, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, 1-7-1 Sakamoto, Nagasaki, 852-8588, Japan.
| | - Shuichi Fujita
- Department of Oral Pathology, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, 1-7-1 Sakamoto, Nagasaki, 852-8588, Japan
| | - Miho Sasaki
- Department of Radiology and Cancer Biology, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, 1-7-1 Sakamoto, Nagasaki, 852-8588, Japan
| | - Sato Eida
- Department of Radiology and Cancer Biology, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, 1-7-1 Sakamoto, Nagasaki, 852-8588, Japan
| | - Masataka Uetani
- Department of Radiological Sciences, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, 1-7-1 Sakamoto, Nagasaki, 852-8588, Japan
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Fan J, Heimann A, Wu M. Temporal mandibular joint chondrocalcinosis (tophaceous pseudogout) diagnosed by ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration. Diagn Cytopathol 2019; 47:803-807. [PMID: 30908901 DOI: 10.1002/dc.24181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2018] [Revised: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Tophaceous pseudogout is a calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate crystal (CPPD) deposition disease that frequently affects elderly patient in the temporomandibular joint (TMJ). A diagnosis of CPPD deposition disease in the TMJ is challenging due to its mimicking of other benign and malignant entities. Surgical exploration followed by histologic examination is by far the most frequently used diagnostic modality. We present a case of an 87-year-old female who presented with a right TMJ mass. A final diagnosis of tophaceous pseudogout was made on cellular material obtained by ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration (US-guided FNA). Based on our case and current available literature, ultrasound-guided FNA is a reliable tool for diagnosing tophaceous pseudogout of the TMJ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Fan
- Department of Pathology, Stony Brook University Hospital, Stony Brook, New York
| | - Alan Heimann
- Department of Pathology, Stony Brook University Hospital, Stony Brook, New York
| | - Maoxin Wu
- Department of Pathology, Stony Brook University Hospital, Stony Brook, New York
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Kwon KJ, Seok H, Lee JH, Kim MK, Kim SG, Park HK, Choi HM. Calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate deposition disease in the temporomandibular joint: diagnosis and treatment. Maxillofac Plast Reconstr Surg 2018; 40:19. [PMID: 30206535 PMCID: PMC6081829 DOI: 10.1186/s40902-018-0158-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate deposition disease (CPDD) is a rare disease in the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) space. It forms a calcified crystal mass and induces a limitation of joint movement. Case presentation The calcified mass in our case was occupied in the left TMJ area and extended to the infratemporal and middle cranial fossa. For a complete excision of this mass, we performed a vertical ramus osteotomy and resected the mass around the mandibular condyle. The calcified mass in the infratemporal fossa was carefully excised, and the segmented mandible was anatomically repositioned. Scanning electronic microscopy (SEM)/energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) microanalysis was performed to evaluate the calcified mass. The result of SEM/EDS showed that the crystal mass was completely composed of calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate. This result strongly suggested that the calcified mass was CPDD in the TMJ area. Conclusions CPDD in the TMJ is a rare disease and is difficult to differentially diagnose from other neoplasms. A histological examination and quantitative microanalysis are required to confirm the diagnosis. In our patient, CPDD in the TMJ was successfully removed via the extracorporeal approach. SEM/EDS microanalysis was used for the differential diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwang-Jun Kwon
- 1Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, College of Dentistry, Gangneung-Wonju National University, Gangneung, 25457 Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Seok
- 2Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Chungbuk National University Hospital, Cheongju, 28644 Republic of Korea
| | - Jang-Ha Lee
- 1Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, College of Dentistry, Gangneung-Wonju National University, Gangneung, 25457 Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Keun Kim
- 1Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, College of Dentistry, Gangneung-Wonju National University, Gangneung, 25457 Republic of Korea
| | - Seong-Gon Kim
- 1Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, College of Dentistry, Gangneung-Wonju National University, Gangneung, 25457 Republic of Korea
| | - Hyung-Ki Park
- 3Gangwon Regional Division, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology, Gangneung, 25440 Republic of Korea
| | - Hang-Moon Choi
- 4Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology, College of Dentistry, Gangneung-Wonju National University, Gangneung, 25457 Republic of Korea
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