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Elshahawy I, El-Siefy M, Fawy S, Mohammed E. Epidemiological Studies on Nematode Parasites of Domestic Geese (Anser anser f. domesticus) and First Molecular Identification and Phylogenetic Analysis of Heterakis dispar (Schrank, 1790) in Egypt. Acta Parasitol 2021; 66:1297-1306. [PMID: 33977401 DOI: 10.1007/s11686-021-00407-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Gastrointestinal nematodes are one of the most important constraints of poor geese health and productivity, in addition to being involved in great economic losses for various poultry sectors. This study primarily aimed at determining the epidemiological profile and risk factors associated with the occurrence of gastrointestinal (GI) nematode parasites in geese in Egypt. The phylogenetic relationships between heterakids were the second aim. METHODS For achieving these aims, a total 180 of intestinal samples were screened for the presence of gastrointestinal nematodes over a period of one year from December 2018 to November 2019. Furthermore, A PCR-based DNA sequencing of the mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase subunit1 gene (nad1) was conducted for characterization of adult Heterakis dispar. RESULTS The current search revealed that the overall prevalence was 33.33% (60/180). Five species of nematode species was encountered in this study, namely Capillaria spp., Heterakis gallinarum (Schrank, 1788), Ascaridia galli (Schrank, 1788), Subulura brumpti (Lopez-Neyra, 1922) and Heterakis dispar (Schrank, 1790). A positive relationship was found between the prevalence of nematode infection and age of tested geese revealing that the high prevalence was found in adults rather than young birds (P = 0.03). Moreover, there was no significant difference in the prevalence of nematode infection between male and female geese (P > 0.05). Also, there was strong significant seasonal trends in the prevalence of the recovered helminths with the maximum infection was observed in summer season and lowest in winter (P = 0.002). The BLAST analysis of H. dispar nad1 sequence showed a 96.4% similarity with the sequences of H. dispar Heilongjiang. It also showed a lower similarity to the mitochondrial gene sequences of H. gallinarum (84.4%). This is the first molecular identification and report of genetic diversity of Heterakis dispar in geese from Egypt. CONCLUSIONS The current finding initially provides a concise account of knowledge about the epidemiology of gastrointestinal nematodes infecting geese and are considered as a starting point for the implementation of appropriate control and prophylactic schemes for GIT nematodiasis. It also confirms the potential uses of genetic techniques for taxonomic studies of different parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ismail Elshahawy
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, South Valley University, Qena, Egypt.
| | - Mahmoud El-Siefy
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafr el-Sheikh, Egypt
| | - Samia Fawy
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Aswan University, Aswan, Egypt
| | - Eman Mohammed
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, South Valley University, Qena, Egypt
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Bobrek K, Gaweł A. Prevalence of Heterakis Infection in Parental Flocks of Geese. Avian Dis 2021; 64:552-555. [PMID: 33647151 DOI: 10.1637/0005-2086-64.4.552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The prevalence of Heterakis infection in reproductive geese from 56 flocks was investigated between February 2015 and November 2019 by using both anatomopathologic and coproscopic examinations. The nematodes were microscopically examined, and 37.5% (21/56) of the flocks were infected with Heterakis nematodes, mostly with Heterakis dispar (35.7%). In one particular flock, a Heterakis gallinarum infection was noted. In two flocks, Heterakis infection was identified only during coproscopic examination. The infection susceptibility of the geese depended on the bird's age-in the first reproductive season, 50% of the flocks were positive; in the second season, 42% were positive; and in the third season, 30% were positive. The number of nematodes in each necropsied goose varied from 8 to 216 individuals. During the 5 years of epidemiologic analysis, the infection occurrence decreased from 66.7% to 11%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamila Bobrek
- Department of Epizootiology and Clinic of Bird and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, pl. Grunwaldzki 45, Wrocław 50-366, Poland
| | - Andrzej Gaweł
- Department of Epizootiology and Clinic of Bird and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, pl. Grunwaldzki 45, Wrocław 50-366, Poland
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3
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Shutler D, Priest JM, Stewart DT, Boudreau M. Demographical and morphological differences among coyotes ( Canis latrans) relative to sampling method. CAN J ZOOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2020-0167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Collection methods can be biased, leading to misperceptions of population composition. We tested if collection method (footholds, snares, and shooting) gave different perceptions of demography or morphology of 3539 eastern coyotes (Canis latrans Say, 1823). We found no differences in sex ratios of animals among methods, but did find some evidence that younger, lighter, and smaller animals were more likely to be collected by footholds than with snares. Female reproductive histories (placental scars) did not differ among methods. In a subsample of 232 animals, we found no evidence of differences in helminth parasitism relative to collection method. Overall, our large sample for the non-parasite analyses facilitated finding statistical significance; the biological implications hinge on the precision required in estimating population composition and the focal characteristics being compared. For example, mass was 5.3% lower for coyotes caught with footholds versus snares and 10.4% lower for coyotes caught with footholds versus being shot, whereas linear trait measurements of coyotes caught with footholds were generally smaller by at most 4.5% compared with other methods (broadly consistent with linear versus volumetric measurements). Our study provides important baseline information for making inferences about populations of coyotes (and other species) sampled using only a single collection method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dave Shutler
- Department of Biology, Acadia University, 15 University Avenue, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada
| | - Jenna M. Priest
- Department of Biology, Acadia University, 15 University Avenue, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada
- Nova Scotia Department of Lands and Forestry, Wildlife Division, Kentville, NS B4N 4E5, Canada
| | - Donald T. Stewart
- Department of Biology, Acadia University, 15 University Avenue, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada
| | - Michael Boudreau
- Nova Scotia Department of Lands and Forestry, Wildlife Division, Kentville, NS B4N 4E5, Canada
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Prevalence and Co-Infection of Baruscapillaria genus (Nematoda, Capillariidae) in Domestic Geese in Ukraine. FOLIA VETERINARIA 2020. [DOI: 10.2478/fv-2020-0005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
New data about the fauna of nematodes of Baruscapillaria genus have been obtained which show that they parasitize domestic geese in the Poltava region of the Ukraine. It has been established that the species composition of Capillariidae is represented by two species—B. anseris (Madsen, 1945, Moravec, 1982) and B. obsignata (Madsen, 1945, Moravec, 1982). For the first time in the Ukraine, parasitisation with non-specific geese species of Capillariidae family, B. obsignata, have been substantiated. It was found that capillariosis of geese was more frequent in the co-invasions of the birds’ digestive channel; the prevalence of invasion was 41.97 %. According to the results of helminthological dissection and identification of isolated pathogens, 40 varieties of co-invasions were found, where nematodes of the Baruscapillaria genus were combined with cestodes of two species: Drepanidotaenia lanceolata (Bloch, 1782) and Tschertkovilepis setigera (Froehlich, 1789), as well as with nematodes of four other species: Аmidostomum anseris (Zeder, 1800), Trichostrongylus tenuis (Mehlis, 1846), Heterakis gallinarum (Schrank, 1788) and Heterakis dispar (Schrank, 1790). Most often, we recorded capillariosis as a part of two- (prevalence—17.75 %) and three-component (11.75 %) co-invasions, and the main coexisting helminths of Capillariidae from Baruscapillaria genus were nematodes A. anseris (prevalence 22.78 %) and H. dispar (14.15 %).
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Molecular Identification and Phylogenetic Analysis of Heterakis dispar Isolated from Geese. Acta Parasitol 2019; 64:753-760. [PMID: 31512065 PMCID: PMC6908560 DOI: 10.2478/s11686-019-00112-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Purpose Heterakidosis is a common parasitic infection caused in domestic birds by Heterakis species: Heterakis gallinarum, H. isolonche, and H. dispar. Among them, the best described species is H. gallinarum, noted mainly in gallinaceous birds. In waterfowl, H. dispar is the predominant species. The variations in morphology and host specificity qualify H. dispar as a different species, but the phylogenetic relationships between heterakids were unclear for a long time, because of a lack of H. dispar sequences. Methods The authors provided the molecular data for H. dispar and analyzed the obtained sequences of the partial 18S rRNA gene and region ITS1-5.8SrRNA-ITS2 with the homological sequences. Results The 18S rRNA PCR product of H. dispar was about 800 bp, and the ITS-5.8S-ITS2 PCR product was about 920 bp, noticeably smaller size compared to H. gallinarum product. The BLAST analysis of H. dispar 18S sequence showed a 99% similarity with the sequences of Heterakis gallinarum and Ascaridia galli, 98% with A. nymphii, but only 94% with the sequence of Heterakis sp. Our ITS sequence of H. dispar was almost identical to the H. isolonche isolate, there is only one nucleotide of difference among the 943 sites analyzed. It also showed a lower similarity to the ITS sequences of H. gallinarum (88%), H. spumosa (87%), and H. dahomensis (87%). Conclusions In our phylogenetic analysis, it is the first attempt at the reconstruction of relationships within this superfamily Heterakoidea based on 18S rDNA and ITS region.
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Gao JF, Hou MR, Wang WF, Gao ZY, Zhang XG, Lu YX, Shi TR. The complete mitochondrial genome of Heterakis dispar (Ascaridida: Heterakidae). Mitochondrial DNA B Resour 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/23802359.2019.1574627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Feng Gao
- Department of Parasitology, Branch of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary of Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qiqihar, P.R. China
- Northeastern Science Inspection Station, China Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Animal Pathogen Biology, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, P.R. China
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, P.R. China
| | - Mei-Ru Hou
- Department of Parasitology, Branch of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary of Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qiqihar, P.R. China
| | - Wen-Feng Wang
- Heilongjiang Zhalong National Natural Reserve Administration, Qiqihar, P.R. China
| | - Zhong-Yan Gao
- Heilongjiang Zhalong National Natural Reserve Administration, Qiqihar, P.R. China
| | - Xian-Guang Zhang
- Heilongjiang Zhalong National Natural Reserve Administration, Qiqihar, P.R. China
| | - Yi-Xin Lu
- Northeastern Science Inspection Station, China Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Animal Pathogen Biology, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, P.R. China
| | - Tong-Rui Shi
- Department of Parasitology, Branch of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary of Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qiqihar, P.R. China
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7
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Sources of variation in endohelminth parasitism of common eiders over-wintering in the Canadian Arctic. Polar Biol 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s00300-018-2423-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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8
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Conner England J, Levengood JM, Osborn JM, Yetter AP, Suski CD, Cole RA, Hagy HM. Associations of intestinal helminth infections with health parameters of spring-migrating female lesser scaup (Aythya affinis) in the upper Midwest, USA. Parasitol Res 2018; 117:1877-1890. [PMID: 29696395 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-018-5879-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Thousands of lesser scaup (Aythya affinis) die during spring and fall migrations through the upper Midwest, USA, from infections with Cyathocotyle bushiensis and Sphaeridiotrema spp. (Class: Trematoda) after ingesting infected intermediate hosts, such as non-native faucet snails (Bithynia tentaculata). The lesser scaup is a species of conservation concern and is highly susceptible to these infections. We collected female lesser scaup from spring migratory stopover locations throughout Illinois and Wisconsin and assessed biochemical and morphological indicators of health in relation to intestinal helminth loads. Helminth species diversity, total trematode abundance, and the infection intensities of the trematodes C. bushiensis and Sphaeridiotrema spp. were associated with percent body fat, blood metabolites, hematological measures, and an index of foraging habitat quality. Helminth diversity was negatively associated with percent body fat, albumin concentrations, and monocytes, whereas glucose concentrations displayed a slight, positive association. Total trematode abundance was negatively associated with blood concentrations of non-esterified fatty acids and albumin. Infections of C. bushiensis were positively related to basophil levels, whereas Sphaeridiotrema spp. infection intensity was negatively associated with packed cell volume and foraging habitat quality. Thus, commonly measured health metrics may indicate intestinal parasite infections and help waterfowl managers understand overall habitat quality. Intestinal parasitic loads offer another plausible mechanism underlying the spring condition hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Conner England
- Frank C. Bellrose Waterfowl Research Center, Forbes Biological Station, Illinois Natural History Survey, Prairie Research Institute, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 20003 CR 1770E, Havana, IL, 62644, USA.
| | - Jeffrey M Levengood
- Illinois Natural History Survey, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1816 S. Oak St, Champaign, Illinois, 61820, USA
| | - Josh M Osborn
- Frank C. Bellrose Waterfowl Research Center, Forbes Biological Station, Illinois Natural History Survey, Prairie Research Institute, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 20003 CR 1770E, Havana, IL, 62644, USA
| | - Aaron P Yetter
- Frank C. Bellrose Waterfowl Research Center, Forbes Biological Station, Illinois Natural History Survey, Prairie Research Institute, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 20003 CR 1770E, Havana, IL, 62644, USA
| | - Cory D Suski
- Illinois Natural History Survey, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1816 S. Oak St, Champaign, Illinois, 61820, USA
| | - Rebecca A Cole
- US Geological Survey-National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Rd, Madison, Wisconsin, 53711, USA
| | - Heath M Hagy
- Frank C. Bellrose Waterfowl Research Center, Forbes Biological Station, Illinois Natural History Survey, Prairie Research Institute, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 20003 CR 1770E, Havana, IL, 62644, USA.,United States Fish and Wildlife Service, 6772 Highway 76S, Stanton, Tennessee, 38069, USA
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9
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Dargent F, Morrill A, Alisauskas RT, McLaughlin JD, Shutler D, Forbes MR. Lesser snow goose helminths show recurring and positive parasite infection-diversity relations. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2017; 6:22-28. [PMID: 28229044 PMCID: PMC5312511 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2017.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2016] [Revised: 01/20/2017] [Accepted: 01/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The patterns and mechanisms by which biological diversity is associated with parasite infection risk are important to study because of their potential implications for wildlife population's conservation and management. Almost all research in this area has focused on host species diversity and has neglected parasite diversity, despite evidence that parasites are important drivers of community structure and ecosystem processes. Here, we assessed whether presence or abundance of each of nine helminth species parasitizing lesser snow geese (Chen caerulescens) was associated with indices of parasite diversity (i.e. species richness and Shannon's Diversity Index). We found repeated instances of focal parasite presence and abundance having significant positive co-variation with diversity measures of other parasites. These results occurred both within individual samples and for combinations of all samples. Whereas host condition and parasite facilitation could be drivers of the patterns we observed, other host- or parasite-level effects, such as age or sex class of host or taxon of parasite, were discounted as explanatory variables. Our findings of recurring and positive associations between focal parasite abundance and diversity underscore the importance of moving beyond pairwise species interactions and contexts, and of including the oft-neglected parasite species diversity in infection-diversity studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipe Dargent
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S-5B6, Canada
| | - André Morrill
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S-5B6, Canada
| | - Ray T. Alisauskas
- Environment Canada, Prairie & Northern Wildlife Research Centre, 115 Perimeter Road, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 0X4, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, 112 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5E2, Canada
| | - J. Daniel McLaughlin
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. W., Montreal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Dave Shutler
- Department of Biology, Acadia University, 33 Westwood Avenue, Wolfville, NS, B4P 2R6, Canada
| | - Mark R. Forbes
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S-5B6, Canada
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Gillingham MAF, Béchet A, Courtiol A, Rendón-Martos M, Amat JA, Samraoui B, Onmuş O, Sommer S, Cézilly F. Very high MHC Class IIB diversity without spatial differentiation in the mediterranean population of greater Flamingos. BMC Evol Biol 2017; 17:56. [PMID: 28219340 PMCID: PMC5319168 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-017-0905-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2016] [Accepted: 02/06/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Selective pressure from pathogens is thought to shape the allelic diversity of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes in vertebrates. In particular, both local adaptation to pathogens and gene flow are thought to explain a large part of the intraspecific variation observed in MHC allelic diversity. To date, however, evidence that adaptation to locally prevalent pathogens maintains MHC variation is limited to species with limited dispersal and, hence, reduced gene flow. On the one hand high gene flow can disrupt local adaptation in species with high dispersal rates, on the other hand such species are much more likely to experience spatial variation in pathogen pressure, suggesting that there may be intense pathogen mediated selection pressure operating across breeding sites in panmictic species. Such pathogen mediated selection pressure operating across breeding sites should therefore be sufficient to maintain high MHC diversity in high dispersing species in the absence of local adaptation mechanisms. We used the Greater Flamingo, Phoenicopterus roseus, a long-lived colonial bird showing a homogeneous genetic structure of neutral markers at the scale of the Mediterranean region, to test the prediction that higher MHC allelic diversity with no population structure should occur in large panmictic populations of long-distance dispersing birds than in other resident species. Results We assessed the level of allelic diversity at the MHC Class IIB exon 2 from 116 individuals born in four different breeding colonies of Greater Flamingo in the Mediterranean region. We found one of the highest allelic diversity (109 alleles, 2 loci) of any non-passerine avian species investigated so far relative to the number of individuals and loci genotyped. There was no evidence of population structure between the four major Mediterranean breeding colonies. Conclusion Our results suggest that local adaptation at MHC Class IIB in Greater Flamingos is constrained by high gene flow and high MHC diversity appears to be maintained by population wide pathogen-mediated selection rather than local pathogen-mediated selection. Further understanding of how pathogens vary across space and time will be crucial to further elucidate the mechanisms maintaining MHC diversity in species with large panmictic populations and high dispersal rates. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-017-0905-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A F Gillingham
- University of Ulm, Institute of Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, Albert-Einstein Allee 11, D-89069, Ulm, Germany. .,Université de Bourgogne, Equipe Ecologie Evolutive, UMR CNRS 6282 Biogéosciences, 6 bd. Gabriel, 21000, Dijon, France. .,Centre de Recherche de la Tour du Valat, Le Sambuc, 13200, Arles, France. .,Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Evolutionary Genetics, Alfred-Kowalke-Str. 17, D-10315, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Arnaud Béchet
- Centre de Recherche de la Tour du Valat, Le Sambuc, 13200, Arles, France
| | - Alexandre Courtiol
- Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Evolutionary Genetics, Alfred-Kowalke-Str. 17, D-10315, Berlin, Germany.,Berlin Center for Genomics in Biodiversity Research (BeGenDiv), D-14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Manuel Rendón-Martos
- R.N. Laguna de Fuente de Piedra, Consejería de Medio Ambiente y Ordenación del Territorio, Junta de Andalucía, Apartado 1, E-29520 Fuente de Piedra, (Málaga), Spain
| | - Juan A Amat
- Department of Wetland Ecology, Estación Biológica de Doñana, (EBD-CSIC), calle Américo Vespucio s/n, E-41092, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Boudjéma Samraoui
- Center of Excellence for Research in Biodiversity, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.,Laboratoire de recherche et de conservation des zones humides, University of Guelma, Guelma, Algeria
| | - Ortaç Onmuş
- Natural History Museum, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology, Ege University, Bornova, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Simone Sommer
- University of Ulm, Institute of Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, Albert-Einstein Allee 11, D-89069, Ulm, Germany
| | - Frank Cézilly
- Université de Bourgogne, Equipe Ecologie Evolutive, UMR CNRS 6282 Biogéosciences, 6 bd. Gabriel, 21000, Dijon, France.,Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France
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Is cestode infection intensity associated with decreased body condition in the Eurasian woodcock Scolopax rusticola? J Helminthol 2017; 92:42-48. [PMID: 28124636 DOI: 10.1017/s0022149x17000037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The Eurasian woodcock Scolopax rusticola is a widespread woodland specialist and a widely harvested quarry species throughout its European wintering areas, including Britain. Woodcock are prone to cestodiasis, but prevalence levels and possible effects on body condition remain under-studied. We studied the prevalence, abundance and intensity of cestodiasis in 161 woodcock harvested in four British regions in December and January during two consecutive winters (2013/14 and 2014/15). Cestodiasis prevalence was 90%, and there was no difference in prevalence between birds harvested in Cornwall, Wessex, East Anglia and Scotland. High prevalence levels were explained by the fact that earthworms (Lumbricidae) are intermediate hosts for some cestode species and also the most important dietary component of woodcock. The distribution of cestodiasis in woodcock was aggregated, such that when using the total length of cestodes per sample to measure abundance, 65% of the birds had less than 80 cm. Cestodiasis abundance varied between sexes across regions but the intensity was not affected by region, sex, age or their interactions. The intensity of cestodiasis was positively correlated with fresh weight and pectoral mass, while no significant correlation was found with the abdominal fat pad. Our results suggest that, despite high prevalence levels and intensity of cestodiasis in woodcock, host body condition is not significantly affected and hence it is unlikely that cestodiasis has a major effect on woodcock population dynamics.
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12
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Provencher JF, Forbes MR, Mallory ML, Wilson S, Gilchrist HG. Anti-parasite treatment, but not mercury burdens, influence nesting propensity dependent on arrival time or body condition in a marine bird. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 575:849-857. [PMID: 27692942 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2016] [Revised: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 09/16/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Arctic wildlife can be exposed to high mercury (Hg) levels, and are also naturally exposed to gastrointestinal parasites that can reduce condition and negatively affect reproductive output and/or survival in similar ways. Importantly, both Hg and parasites are increasing in wildlife in some Arctic regions. We studied the northern common eider duck (Somateria mollissima) to explore how Hg in association with both natural levels and experimentally reduced parasitic infections, affect reproduction and survival. Female eiders were measured, banded, and blood sampled to determine blood Hg burdens, prior to breeding. Propensity to nest, clutch size, nest survival, nest attendance, and return rates were assessed in relation to both Hg burden and parasite treatment. Neither reproduction nor return rates of females varied with Hg concentrations, but females arriving late to the colony, or in low body condition, showed increased nesting propensity when given the anti-parasite treatment as compared to placebo treatment. Our results suggest that parasites can play a critical role in decisions to invest in avian breeding annually, particularly among individuals with a late onset to breeding, and in poor condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- J F Provencher
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada.
| | - M R Forbes
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada.
| | - M L Mallory
- Department of Biology, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia B4P 2R6, Canada.
| | - S Wilson
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Wildlife Research Division, Raven Road, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada.
| | - H G Gilchrist
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Wildlife Research Division, Raven Road, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada.
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Boone EC, Meiners SJ, Laursen JR. Gut Helminth Composition in Newly Comigrating Light Geese (Lesser Snow GooseChen caerulescens caerulescensand Ross’ GooseChen rossii). COMP PARASITOL 2017. [DOI: 10.1654/1525-2647-84.1.36] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Evan C. Boone
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, Illinois 61920, U.S.A. (e-mail: )
| | - Scott J. Meiners
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, Illinois 61920, U.S.A. (e-mail: )
| | - Jeffrey R. Laursen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, Illinois 61920, U.S.A. (e-mail: )
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Helminth community structure in two species of arctic-breeding waterfowl. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-PARASITES AND WILDLIFE 2016; 5:263-272. [PMID: 27709067 PMCID: PMC5040642 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2016] [Revised: 09/13/2016] [Accepted: 09/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Climate change is occurring rapidly at high latitudes, and subsequent changes in parasite communities may have implications for hosts including wildlife and humans. Waterfowl, in particular, harbor numerous parasites and may facilitate parasite movement across broad geographic areas due to migratory movements. However, little is known about helminth community structure of waterfowl at northern latitudes. We investigated the helminth communities of two avian herbivores that breed at high latitudes, Pacific black brant (Branta bernicla nigricans), and greater white-fronted geese (Anser albifrons), to examine effects of species, geographic area, age, and sex on helminth species richness, aggregation, prevalence, and intensity. We collected 83 and 58 black brant and white-fronted geese, respectively, from Arctic and Subarctic Alaska July–August 2014. We identified 10 known helminth species (Amidostomum anseris, Amidostomum spatulatum, Drepanidotaenia lanceolata, Epomidiostomum crami, Heterakis dispar, Notocotylus attenuatus, Tetrameres striata, Trichostrongylus tenuis, Tschertkovilepis setigera, and Wardoides nyrocae) and 1 previously undescribed trematode. All geese sampled were infected with at least one helminth species. All helminth species identified were present in both age classes and species, providing evidence of transmission at high latitudes and suggesting broad host susceptibility. Also, all but one helminth species were present at both sites, suggesting conditions are suitable for transmission across a large latitudinal/environmental gradient. Our study provides important baseline information on avian parasites that can be used to evaluate the effects of a changing climate on host-parasite distributions. We collected two goose species in two high-latitude locations to quantify helminths. We identified 10 helminths and 1 previously unidentified trematode in two hosts. Waterfowl helminths are readily transmitted in the Arctic and Subarctic. Arctic-breeding geese have high helminth prevalence rates and infection intensities.
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Leung TLF, Koprivnikar J. Nematode parasite diversity in birds: the role of host ecology, life history and migration. J Anim Ecol 2016; 85:1471-1480. [PMID: 27496635 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have found that migratory birds generally have a more diverse array of pathogens such as parasites, as well as higher intensities of infection. However, it is not clear whether this is driven by the metabolic and physiological demands of migration, differential selection on host life-history traits or basic ecological differences between migratory and non-migratory species. Parasitic helminths can cause significant pathology in their hosts, and many are trophically transmitted such that host diet and habitat use play key roles in the acquisition of infections. Given the concurrent changes in avian habitats and migratory behaviour, it is critical to understand the degree to which host ecology influences their parasite communities. We examined nematode parasite diversity in 153 species of Anseriformes (water birds) and Accipitriformes (predatory birds) in relation to their migratory behaviour, diet, habitat use, geographic distribution and life history using previously published data. Overall, migrators, host species with wide geographic distributions and those utilizing multiple aquatic habitats had greater nematode richness (number of species), and birds with large clutches harboured more diverse nematode fauna with respect to number of superfamilies. Separate analyses for each host order found similar results related to distribution, habitat use and migration; however, herbivorous water birds played host to a less diverse nematode community compared to those that consume some animals. Birds using multiple aquatic habitats have a more diverse nematode fauna relative to primarily terrestrial species, likely because there is greater opportunity for contact with parasite infectious stages and/or consumption of infected hosts. As such, omnivorous and carnivorous birds using aquatic habitats may be more affected by environmental changes that alter their diet and range. Even though there were no overall differences in their ecology and life history compared with non-migrators, migratory bird species still harboured a more diverse array of nematodes, suggesting that this behaviour places unique demands on these hosts and warrants further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tommy L F Leung
- Department of Zoology, School of Environmental & Rural Sciences, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, 2351, Australia
| | - Janet Koprivnikar
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, 350 Victoria Street, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada, M5B 2K3.
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Gethings O, Sage R, Morgan E, Leather S. Body condition is negatively associated with infection with Syngamus trachea in the ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus). Vet Parasitol 2016; 228:1-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Revised: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Spatiotemporal distributions of intestinal helminths in female lesser scaup Aythya affinis during spring migration from the upper Midwest, USA. J Helminthol 2016; 91:479-490. [PMID: 27460259 DOI: 10.1017/s0022149x16000493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
We examined the associations between intestinal helminth infracommunity structure and infection parameters and the age, size, and year and region of collection of 130 female lesser scaup (Aythya affinis) during their 2014-2015 spring migrations through the upper Midwest, USA. We identified a total of 647,174 individual helminths from 40 taxa, including 20 trematodes, 14 cestodes, 4 nematodes and 2 acanthocephalans parasitizing lesser scaup within the study area. Lesser scaup were each infected with 2-23 helminth taxa. One digenean, Plenosoma minimum, is reported for the first time in lesser scaup and in the Midwest. Mean trematode abundance and total helminth abundance was significantly less in 2015 than 2014, and we suspect that colder weather late in 2015 impacted the intermediate host fauna and caused the observed differences. Brillouin's species diversity of helminths was greatest in the northernmost region of the study area, which coincides with the range of a non-indigenous snail that indirectly causes annual mortality events of lesser scaup. While host age and size were not determined to be influential factors of helminth infracommunity structure, non-parametric ordination and permutational analysis of co-variance revealed that year and region of collection explained differences in helminth infracommunities. Our results suggest that spatiotemporal variations play an important role in the structure of intestinal helminth infracommunities found in migrating lesser scaup hosts, and may therefore impact host ability to build endogenous reserves at certain stopover locations in the Midwest.
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Sitko J, Heneberg P. Host specificity and seasonality of helminth component communities in central European grebes (Podicipediformes) and loons (Gaviiformes). Parasitol Int 2015; 64:377-88. [PMID: 26008120 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2015.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2015] [Revised: 04/13/2015] [Accepted: 05/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Structure and pattern of helminth component communities parasitizing grebes and loons are poorly understood. Here we analyze the prevalence, intensity and diversity of helminths in 505 Czech grebes (Podiceps cristatus, Podiceps nigricollis, Tachybaptus ruficollis) and loons (Gavia arctica, Gavia stellata) collected between 1962 and 2014. The species richness of helminth component communities ranged from 31±8 (P. cristatus) to 50±4 (G. stellata) species, with helminth load similar in all five host species, but with strong differences in prevalence and intensity of infection at a helminth species-specific level. The dominance was low, ranging from 0.11 (P. cristatus and G. stellata) to 0.21 (P. nigricollis). Dominant species (>25% prevalence) in P. cristatus were Confluaria sp., Tylodelphys clavata, Echinochasmus coaxatus, Petasiger neocomense and Ligula colymbi; in P. nigricollis and T. ruficollis: Confluaria sp. and Tatria sp.; in G. arctica and G. stellata: Tetrabothrius microcephalus, Stephanoprora denticulata, Cryptocotyle concava, Diplostomum gavium and Ichthyocotylurus erraticus; in G. stellata only: Echinochasmus (Monilifer) spinulosus. Four (12%) of the grebe digenean species were not locally acquired (with non-sympatric intermediate hosts) despite the fact that they represented 25% of digenean individuals found. In loons, five (28%) of digenean species and striking 38% of individuals found used the non-sympatric intermediate host species. Component communities of grebes were similar to each other (Sørensen similarity index 0.47-0.65) but differed strongly from those hosted by loons (0.00-0.20). We present the first systematically collected evidence of intra-annual changes of helminth component communities in grebes, and provide 20 new host records.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiljí Sitko
- Comenius Museum, Moravian Ornithological Station, Přerov, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Heneberg
- Charles University in Prague, Third Faculty of Medicine, Prague, Czech Republic.
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19
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Shutler D, Gendron AD, Rondeau M, Marcogliese DJ. Nematode parasites and leukocyte profiles of Northern Leopard Frogs, Rana pipiens: location, location, location. CAN J ZOOL 2015. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2014-0156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Globally, amphibians face a variety of anthropogenic stresses that include exposure to contaminants such as agricultural pesticides. Pesticides may negatively affect amphibian immune systems, concomitantly increasing susceptibility to parasitism. We quantified nematodes and evaluated leukocyte profiles of Northern Leopard Frogs (Rana pipiens Schreber, 1782) collected from five wetlands in southwestern Quebec, Canada, that spanned a gradient of pesticide exposure. Three taxa of nematode parasites (Rhabdias ranae Walton, 1929, genus Oswaldocruzia Travassos, 1917, and genus Strongyloides Grassi, 1879) were sufficiently numerous for detailed evaluation. When all frogs were pooled, frog size was negatively correlated with nematode species richness, abundances of each of the three nematode species, and densities of three different leukocytes. When all frogs were pooled, there was strong evidence of both negative and positive associations between pairs of parasite species. However, none of the previous relationships was significant within wetlands. Our results reveal strong spatial organization of amphibian–parasite communities and illustrate the importance of controlling for sampling locale in evaluating host–parasite associations. Finally, although several response variables varied significantly among wetlands, causes of this variation did not appear to be related to variation in nematode parasitism or pesticide exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dave Shutler
- Department of Biology, Acadia University, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada
| | - Andrée D. Gendron
- Aquatic Biodiversity Section, Watershed Hydrology and Ecology Research Division, Water Science and Technology Directorate, Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 105 McGill Street, Montréal, QC H2Y 2E7, Canada
| | - Myriam Rondeau
- Atlantic Ocean Watershed Water Quality Monitoring and Surveillance Division, Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 105 McGill Street, Montréal, QC H2Y 2E7, Canada
| | - David J. Marcogliese
- Aquatic Biodiversity Section, Watershed Hydrology and Ecology Research Division, Water Science and Technology Directorate, Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 105 McGill Street, Montréal, QC H2Y 2E7, Canada
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20
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Koprivnikar J, Leung TLF. Flying with diverse passengers: greater richness of parasitic nematodes in migratory birds. OIKOS 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.01799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Janet Koprivnikar
- Dept of Chemistry and Biology; Ryerson Univ.; 350 Victoria Street Toronto, ON M5B 2K3 Canada
| | - Tommy L. F. Leung
- Centre for Behavioural and Physiological Ecology, Zoology, Univ. of New England; Armidale, New South Wales 2351 Australia
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Gartrell BD, Argilla L, Finlayson S, Gedye K, Gonzalez Argandona AK, Graham I, Howe L, Hunter S, Lenting B, Makan T, McInnes K, Michael S, Morgan KJ, Scott I, Sijbranda D, van Zyl N, Ward JM. Ventral dermatitis in rowi (Apteryx rowi) due to cutaneous larval migrans. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-PARASITES AND WILDLIFE 2014; 4:1-10. [PMID: 25830099 PMCID: PMC4356737 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2014.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2014] [Revised: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Rowi on a crèche island showed loss of feathers and dermatitis. We identified cutaneous larval migrans, possibly due to Trichostrongylus. This is the first instance of cutaneous larval migrans to be recorded in birds. Fatal complications resulted in the death of eight birds from aspergillosis. Intensive conservation management can result in pathways for novel infections.
The rowi is a critically endangered species of kiwi. Young birds on a crèche island showed loss of feathers from the ventral abdomen and a scurfy dermatitis of the abdominal skin and vent margin. Histology of skin biopsies identified cutaneous larval migrans, which was shown by molecular sequencing to be possibly from a species of Trichostrongylus as a cause of ventral dermatitis and occasional ulcerative vent dermatitis. The predisposing factors that led to this disease are suspected to be the novel exposure of the rowi to parasites from seabirds or marine mammals due to the island crèche and the limited management of roost boxes. This is the first instance of cutaneous larval migrans to be recorded in birds. Severe and fatal complications of the investigation resulted in the death of eight birds of aspergillosis and pulmonary complications associated with the use of bark as a substrate in hospital. Another bird died of renal failure during the period of hospitalisation despite oral and intravenous fluid therapy. The initiating cause of the renal failure was not determined. These complications have the potential to undermine the working relationship between wildlife veterinarians and conservation managers. This case highlights that intensive conservation management can result in increased opportunities for novel routes of cross-species pathogen transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- B D Gartrell
- Wildbase, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand
| | - L Argilla
- Wellington Zoo, 200 Daniell Street, Newtown, Wellington 6021, New Zealand
| | - S Finlayson
- Wildbase, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand ; Wellington Zoo, 200 Daniell Street, Newtown, Wellington 6021, New Zealand
| | - K Gedye
- Wildbase, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand
| | - A K Gonzalez Argandona
- Wildbase, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand ; Wellington Zoo, 200 Daniell Street, Newtown, Wellington 6021, New Zealand
| | - I Graham
- Department of Conservation, Franz Josef Office, State Highway 6, Franz Josef Glacier, 7856, New Zealand
| | - L Howe
- Wildbase, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand
| | - S Hunter
- Wildbase, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand
| | - B Lenting
- Wellington Zoo, 200 Daniell Street, Newtown, Wellington 6021, New Zealand
| | - T Makan
- Science and Capability Group, Department of Conservation, National Office, 18-32 Manners Street, Wellington 6011, New Zealand
| | - K McInnes
- Science and Capability Group, Department of Conservation, National Office, 18-32 Manners Street, Wellington 6011, New Zealand
| | - S Michael
- Wildbase, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand ; Wellington Zoo, 200 Daniell Street, Newtown, Wellington 6021, New Zealand
| | - K J Morgan
- Wildbase, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand
| | - I Scott
- Wildbase, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand
| | - D Sijbranda
- Wildbase, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand ; Wellington Zoo, 200 Daniell Street, Newtown, Wellington 6021, New Zealand
| | - N van Zyl
- Wildbase, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand
| | - J M Ward
- Wildbase, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand
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Composition, structure and pattern of helminth assemblages associated with central European herons (Ardeidae). Parasitol Int 2014; 64:100-12. [PMID: 25449288 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2014.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2013] [Revised: 09/07/2014] [Accepted: 10/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Helminths parasitizing the ardeid birds are poorly understood, and the majority of studies are limited to checklists and records of novel host-parasite interactions. Here we analyzed the prevalence, intensity and diversity of the helminth component communities associated with an extensive cohort of the five most common Czech herons (Ardea cinerea, Ardea alba, Nycticorax nycticorax, Botaurus stellaris and Ixobrychus minutus) collected in the years 1962-2013. Comparison with Ukrainian datasets supports the existence of local helminth component communities, subject to strong geographic variation. The diversity of the component communities ranged between 37.3±9.6 (A. cinerea) and 2.5±1.1 (I. minutus) species. Similarly, the frequency of particular helminths differed by over one order of magnitude, whereas the helminth load differed by over two orders of magnitude. Typically, the dominant species (Echinochasmus beleocephalus, Uroproctepisthmium bursicola, Posthodiplostomum cuticola, Apharyngostrigea cornu, Desmidocercella numidica and Neogryporhynchus cheilancristrotus) were considered local, with intermediate host species available onsite, as represented by freshwater mollusks. Of the digeneans, 52% of the species likely infected their definitive hosts outside the study area, frequently utilizing invertebrates of salt or brackish waters. For A. cinerea, the largest number of species was in adult males; however the helminth load of the adults was lower than in their juvenile counterparts. This study provides the first systematically collected evidence for the intra-annual changes of the helminth assemblages in herons.
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Temporal variation of juvenile survival in a long-lived species: the role of parasites and body condition. Oecologia 2013; 173:151-60. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-013-2613-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2012] [Accepted: 02/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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