Mechanism of the photochemical degradation of amlodipine

Drug administration via feeding tubes-a procedure that carries risks: systematic identification of critical factors based on commonly administered drugs in a cohort of stroke patients

PURPOSE

Drug administration via feeding tubes is considered a process with many uncertainties. This review aimed to give a comprehensive overview of data available on feeding tube application and to carry out risk assessments for drug substances commonly administered to stroke patients.

METHODS

Drugs frequently administered via feeding tubes were identified through a retrospective analysis of discharge letters from a stroke unit. Physicochemical, pharmacokinetic, and stability properties of these drugs and data on drug-enteral nutrition interactions were systematically searched for in the European Pharmacopoeia, Hagers Handbook of Pharmaceutical Practice, Birchers clinical-pharmacological data compilation, and the Martindale Complete Drug Reference, as well as from databases including DrugBank, DrugDex, PubChem, Google Scholar, and PubMed.

RESULTS

Of the drugs most commonly administered via feeding tubes in the present stroke patient cohort, bisoprolol, candesartan, and ramipril could be considered the least critical due to their overall favourable properties. Acetylsalicylic acid, amlodipine, hydrochlorothiazide, omeprazole and esomeprazole, simvastatin, and torasemide pose risks based on pH or light-dependent instability or proposed food effects. The most critical drugs to be administered via feeding tubes are considered to be furosemide, levodopa, and levothyroxine as they show relevant instabilities under administration conditions and substantial food effects; the latter two even possess a narrow therapeutic index. However, little information is available on drug-tube and drug-formula interactions.

CONCLUSION

Feeding tube administration of medications turned out to be a highly complex process with several unmet risks. Therefore, investigations that systematically assess these risk factors using clinically relevant model systems are urgently needed.

Changes in Tablet Color Due to Light Irradiation: Photodegradation of the Coating Polymer, Hypromellose, by Titanium Dioxide

The color of the tablets and capsules produced by pharmaceutical companies is important from the perspectives of product branding and counterfeiting. According to some studies, light can change tablet color during storage. In this study, tablets comprising amlodipine besylate (AB), a well-known light-sensitive drug, were coated with commonly used coating materials and exposed to light. Compared to the tablets that were not exposed to light, the color of those exposed to light changed over time. In fact, a faster and more pronounced color change was observed in the tablets exposed to light; however, the amount of AB did not decrease significantly in these tablets. The coating materials and their amounts were varied to clarify the materials involved in the color change. Based on the results, titanium dioxide and hypromellose may be involved in the color change process. As titanium dioxide is a photocatalyst, it may induce or promote chemical changes in hypromellose upon light irradiation. Overall, care should be exercised during selection of the coating polymer because titanium dioxide may promote photodegradation of the coatings while protecting the tablet's active ingredient from light.

Evaluation of photostability of azelnidipine tablets and structure determination of its photoproducts

Photo-exposure has a crucial effect on the natures of photosensitive pharmaceuticals in addition to their contents in medicines through the photodegradation. Generated photoproducts might be more bioactive and contribute to the expression of adverse side effects. This study aimed to clarify the photochemical behavior of medicines of azelnidipine, which is a member of dihydropyridine antihypertensive drugs, by the evaluation of its photostability and the determination of chemical structures of generated photoproducts. Calblock® tablets and its altered forms (powders and suspensions) were UV-irradiated by a black light. Residual amounts of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) were monitored by high-performance liquid chromatography. The chemical structures of two photoproducts were determined by electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. API of Calblock® tablets was photodegraded with the generation of several photoproducts. Its photodegradability was more significant when Calblock® tablets were crushed or suspended. Structural determination revealed that two photoproducts were benzophenone and a pyridine derivative. It was speculated that these photoproducts were generated by the elimination of diphenyl methylene radical and additional chemical reaction including oxidation and hydrolysis. Azelnidipine was photosensitive and its photodegradation in Calblock® tablets was promoted by the change of the dosage form. This difference might be derived from the light emission efficiency. This study suggests that API contents of Calblock® tablets might decrease when tablets or its altered forms are exposed to sunlight irradiation with the generation of benzophenone, which is a toxicological potent.

Structure Determination of Felodipine Photoproducts in UV-Irradiated Medicines Using ESI-LC/MS/MS

Dihydropyridine drugs are well known as photodegradable pharmaceuticals. Herein, we evaluate the photostability of felodipine (FL) medicine (Splendil^® (SPL) tablets) and its altered forms (powders and suspensions). FL is a type of dihydropyridine drug, but its photochemical behavior is unknown. FL contents after ultraviolet light (UV) irradiation for 24 h were monitored using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Values of the residual amounts of FL in UV-irradiated SPL powders and suspensions were 32.76 ± 4.88% and 0.79 ± 0.74%, respectively, with the generation of two photoproducts (FL photoproduct 1 and 2). To identify the chemical structures of these photoproducts, electrospray ionization liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (ESI-LC/MS/MS) analysis was performed. Based on their mass-to-charge ratio values and fragment patterns, it was proposed that FL photoproduct 1 was a pyridine derivative and FL photoproduct 2 was an FL dimer. Interestingly, generation rates of FL photoproduct 1 and 2 were dependent on the presence of the aqueous media. The photodimerization of FL was induced in UV-irradiated SPL suspensions. This is the first report evaluating the photostability of SPL tablets and its altered forms and estimating FL photoproducts induced by UV irradiation in the formulation of SPL.

Montmorillonite promoted photodegradation of amlodipine in natural water via formation of surface complexes

The photolysis of amlodipine (AML) as a ubiquitous pollutant in natural water has been extensively studied. Montmorillonite (MMT), a major component of suspended particles in surface aquifers, plays key roles in the natural transportation and transformation of organic contaminants in the environment. However, literature has scarcely focused on whether and how suspended particles affect the phototransformation of AML. This study systematically investigated the phototransformation behavior of AML in MMT suspensions under simulated sunlight. The results obtained showed that MMT significantly enhanced the photolysis of AML. The photodegradation of AML in 0.05 g/L MMT suspension reached 92.2 % after 3 h irradiation under the simulated sunlight. The photodecomposition followed the pseudo-first-order kinetic with a rate constant of 0.803 h^-1 in the presence of 0.05 g/L MMT, which is about 19 times larger than that in the absence of MMT (0.0421 h^-1). Further mechanistic investigation suggested that MMT accelerated the photolysis of AML by the formation of surface complexes between cationic amino groups of AML and the negatively charged sites on MMT surface, which greatly facilitated light absorption and electron transfer for the production of cationic radical AML^+·. Meanwhile, the hydroxyl radicals generated by irradiated MMT also played an important role in the photocatalytic degradation of AML. The probable photodegradation pathways of AML in MMT suspension further supported the proposed mechanisms. The toxicity evaluation of phototransformation products of AML with ECOSAR program indicated that photolysis could reduce its potential threats. These findings reveal an important and previously overlooked phototransformation mechanisms of AML in the presence of MMT clays, which is of importance in assessing the environmental fate of other similar organic contaminants.

1,4-Dihydropyridine Antihypertensive Drugs: Recent Advances in Photostabilization Strategies

The 1,4-dihydropyridine (DHP) drugs are nowadays the most used drugs in the treatment of hypertension. However, all the structures in this series present a significant sensitivity to light, leading to the complete loss of pharmacological activity. This degradation is particularly evident in aqueous solution, so much so that almost all DHP drugs on the market are formulated in solid preparations, especially tablets. The first and main process of photodegradation consists in the aromatization of the dihydropyridine ring, after which secondary processes can take place on the various substituents. A potential danger can result from the formation of single oxygen and superoxide species that can in turn trigger phototoxic reactions. Several strategies for the photostabilisation of DHP drugs have been proposed in recent years, in particular with the aim to formulate these drugs in liquid preparations, as well as to limit any toxicity problems related to light degradation. This review summarizes and describes the main aspects of the studies conducted in recent years to obtain photostable formulations of DHP drugs.

Degradation kinetics and pathways of three calcium channel blockers under UV irradiation

Calcium channel blockers (CCBs) are a group of pharmaceuticals widely prescribed to lower blood pressure and treat heart diseases. They have been frequently detected in wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents and downstream river waters, thus inducing a potential risk to aquatic ecosystems. However, little is known about the behavior and fate of CCBs under UV irradiation, which has been adopted as a primary disinfection method for WWTP effluents. This study investigated the degradation kinetics and pathways of three commonly-used CCBs, including amlodipine (AML), diltiazem (DIL), and verapamil (VER), under UV (254 nm) irradiation. The chemical structures of transformation byproducts (TBPs) were first identified to assess the potential ecological hazards. On that basis, a generic solid-phase extraction method, which simultaneously used four different cartridges, was adopted to extract and enrich the TBPs. Thereafter, the photo-degradation of target CCBs was performed under UV fluences typical for WWTP effluent disinfection. The degradation of all three CCBs conformed to the pseudo-first-order kinetics, with rate constants of 0.031, 0.044 and 0.011 min(-1) for AML, DIL and VER, respectively. By comparing the MS(2) fragments and the evolution (i.e., formation or decay) trends of identified TBPs, the degradation pathways were proposed. In the WWTP effluent, although the target CCBs could be degraded, several TBPs still contained the functional pharmacophores and reached peak concentrations under UV fluences of 40-100 mJ cm(-2).

Phototransformation of amlodipine: degradation kinetics and identification of its photoproducts

Nowadays, monitoring focuses on the primary compounds and does not include degradation products formed during various biological and chemical processes. Transformation products may have the same effects to human health and the environment or sometimes they can be more toxic than the parent compound. Unfortunately, knowledge about the formation of degradation products is still limited, however, can be very important for the environmental risk assessment. Firstly, the photodegradation kinetic of amlodipine was investigated in two experimental conditions: during the exposure to solar radiation and during the exposure to the light emitted by the xenon lamp. In all cases degradation of amlodipine followed a pseudo-first-order kinetics. In the next step, identification of transformation products of amlodipine formed during the exposure to xenon lamp irradiation was performed using ultra high performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS). As a result sixteen photoproducts were identified, their structures were elucidated and ultimately the transformation pathway was proposed. Fifteen compounds (out of 16 photoproducts) were newly identified and reported here for the first time; some of those compounds were formed from the first photoproduct, amlodipine pyridine derivative. Several analytes were formed only in acidic or basic conditions. Furthermore, the occurrence of amlodipine and its identified degradation products was investigated in environmental waters. Only one out of 16 compounds was found in wastewater effluent. The possibility of the sorption of examined analytes to sewage sludge particles was discussed based on QSAR.